Most ancient cultures placed a strong emphasis on gods
or deities, which they used as a means of explaining things in
the natural world such as the ocean and the thunder. With the
exception of the Hebrews, virtually all ancient cultures had a
pagan belief system—that is, they worshiped many gods. These
beliefs were certainly held by the Egyptians, who usually represented
their gods as beings with bodies of men or women but
the heads of other creatures.
Principal among the Egyptian
deities were Ra, the sun god, who later
came to be called Amon-Ra; Osiris (oh-
SIGH-riss), the god of the underworld;
Isis (EYE-siss), the goddess of the
home; the evil Set; and the falconheaded
Horus (HORE-us). There were
hundreds of gods, each with its own
priests, temples, and rituals. And then
there were the men who the Egyptians
believed were close to gods: the
pharaohs.
In modern America, people are
used to following the lives of celebrities,
stars they read about in magazines
and see on television shows. In
ancient Egypt, by contrast, there was
only one “star,” and he was the
pharaoh. The word pharaoh (FAIR-oh)
means “great house” or “one who lives
in the palace.” This was the title for
the king of Egypt, but the pharaoh was
much more than a mere king. He was
seen as a link between the gods and
humankind, and the people viewed him more as a divine
being than as a human. They addressed him as “son of Ra” or
by other godlike names, and they considered him an earthly
embodiment of Horus. Thus Egyptian illustrations often portrayed
the pharaoh as a falcon, like Horus, whose wings covered
the world.
When a pharaoh died, the Egyptians believed, he
became one with the god Osiris and ruled over the dead. This
role might seem unpleasant, but to the Egyptians, the afterlife
was more important than life on earth. They believed that a
person did not really die: the person’s spirit would continue to
live for eternity—if the people who prepared the body for burial
followed certain procedures. Therefore the Egyptians built
enormous tombs, the pyramids, for the pharaohs.
Pyramids were not simply graves. They were houses in
which the pharaoh’s spirit would live until it came time to
emerge and begin life again in the afterworld. Along with dolls symbolizing their wives and servants, pharaohs were buried
with various treasures, including jewelry as well as models of
furniture, chariots, and boats. So that they would not go hungry,
their tombs contained great quantities of food and drink,
which would often be supplemented by offerings of more food
and drink at a temple attached to the pyramid.
The pyramids housed the pharaoh’s body, but that
body first had to be preserved. Therefore the Egyptians developed
the art of mummification. Eventually not only pharaohs,
but Egyptian nobles and ultimately even rich commoners
(nonroyalty) began having themselves mummified and buried
in their own elaborate tombs. Indeed everyone, not just the
pharaohs and the upper classes, believed that they would continue
living in the afterworld. Only the select few, however,
could afford to make what Egyptians considered the proper
preparations.
Everything about the pharaoh distinguished him from
other people—even the items he wore. One of these items was
a rectangular-shaped ceremonial beard (i.e., it was not his real
hair), that hung straight down from the chin about six inches.
Often pharaohs were shown with arms crossed over their
chests, each hand holding objects that symbolized their
power: usually a whip and a crook. A pharaoh’s crook is a long,
hooked, striped object that looks a bit like a candy cane.
As it is today in the desert, headgear was extremely
important in the hot, dry climate of Egypt. The pharaoh’s head
cloth, called a nemes, served to distinguish him from his subjects.
From the front, the nemes (pronounced NEM-ease) had
a shape like thick hair that hung down over both of his shoulders,
to about the center of his rib cage. Like the crook, it was
striped; across the top, over his eyebrows, it had a band of gold.
At the center of this band were one or two golden cobras, the
fearsome poisonous snakes that lived in the deserts around
Egypt. This stood for the cobra goddess that protected the
kings and queens of Egypt.
As impressive as the nemes looked, it was not the
pharaonic crown. (The word “pharaonic” is simply pharaoh
transformed from a noun to an adjective.) To describe his
crown and its symbolism, however, it is necessary to appreciate
what happened when a pharaoh named Menes united the
kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt in about 3100 B.C.

It is impossible to talk about ancient Egypt without talking
about the Nile River, the center of Egyptian life. Just as a per-son’s body is built around their spine, the Nile was the spine of
Egypt; without it, there would have been no pharaohs or pyramids
or any Egyptian civilization of any kind—only desert.
Not only is the Nile the world’s longest river, at 4,160
miles (6,695 kilometers), it is also the only major river on Earth
that flows northward. From its source deep in the African continent,
in the present-day nation of Burundi, the Nile flows
into Lake Victoria, crosses the Equator, and spans half the
length of Africa, running through the countries of Uganda and
Sudan before entering Egypt.
More than halfway along its course, near the Sudanese
capital of Khartoum, the Nile changes in two important ways.
The first of these changes is the beginning of the cataracts, or
rapids, which interrupt the smooth flow of the river. Just above
Khartoum is the Sixth Cataract. As the Nile snakes gradually
northward, it passes through several more of these rapids, each
numbered in descending order. The First Cataract lies near the
modern city of Aswan; above this point, Egyptian civilization
developed.
Even more important than the cataracts, however, is
the second change. At Khartoum two rivers come together to
form the Nile as the ancient Egyptians knew it. These two bodies
of water are the White Nile, which flows up from the south;
and the Blue Nile, which originates to the southeast, in
Ethiopia. The White Nile has a relatively stable flow, whereas
the Blue Nile experiences a dramatic rise and fall during the
course of the year because it comes from an area prone to
heavy summer rains.
In ancient times, the Blue Nile caused flooding from
July to September. These floods, rather than being disasters,
were essential to the life of Egypt. As the floodwaters receded
each year, they left a deposit of silt, a type of soil rich in minerals.
Silt has a consistency somewhere between that of sand and
clay. The enriched earth was perfect for growing wheat and barley.
Most years the farmers of Egypt had bountiful harvests.
Thanks to the Nile, Egypt was known as the Black
Land—that is, a place of black earth good for crops. Beyond the
Nile Valley, however, lay the Red Land. This was the desert,
which covered more than ninety percent of Egypt. With the
exception of a few scattered oases (green areas), this area was and is a hellish place where no living creature could long survive.
No wonder, then, that the Egyptians’ religion depicted
the red god of the desert, Set, as an evil deity (DEE-ih-tee).
Even with the Nile, Egypt is a hot, dry, country; without
it, the climate would be almost unbearable. Although the
modern nation of Egypt is more than 700 miles wide at its
widest point, virtually all of Egyptian civilization—both now
and in ancient times—focuses on a narrow strip of land that
spreads out for a few miles on either side of the Nile. This land
is the Nile Valley, which forms the rim of the river as it flows
for some 500 miles through Egypt.
Cairo, the modern capital, is close to the site of Memphis,
one of ancient Egypt’s capitals. Near Cairo the Nile begins
its final stage before flowing into the Mediterranean Sea. This
region is the Nile Delta, an area perhaps 100 miles long and
about as wide. Most major rivers have a delta, a triangle-shaped
region where the river slows down before emptying into the
sea. In a delta, the river’s waters fan out, depositing great loads
of silt and creating particularly rich soil for farming.
Not only was the Nile the source of all life in ancient
Egypt, it was also the principal highway for commerce and
other transportation. If people wanted to go from southern
Egypt (Upper Egypt) to the north, the currents would carry
their boat. If they wanted to travel from the north (Lower
Egypt) to the south, they had only to rely on the Mediterranean
winds to push a sailboat. Thus the river formed the
framework of Egyptian civilization. A later historian would
describe Egypt as “the gift of The Nile.” The Egyptians in turn
believed that the Nile came from the source of all life and the
source of all things both good and bad: the gods.

The world’s first major civilization developed in Egypt more
than five thousand years ago. It flourished longer than
almost any society in human history. The Egyptians, who were
very concerned about what happens in the afterlife—that is, in
a life after death—built vast tombs called pyramids for their
kings, the pharaohs. Many of the pyramids are still standing.
They represent some of the greatest architectural achievements
of human history. Closer to home, a legacy (a gift from
the past) of ancient Egypt can be found in many a modern
household, thanks to the Egyptians’domestication, or taming,
of the house cat. The Egyptians were also one of the first peoples
to develop a system of writing, which they called hieroglyphics;
and a basic type of “paper,” derived from the papyrus
(pronounced puh-PIE-russ) plant. (The word paper comes from
papyrus.) Though Egyptian society declined after 332 B.C., it
exerted a huge influence over Greece and Rome. Out of Greek
and Roman civilizations ultimately came the cultures of
Europe and the nations influenced by those cultures—including
the United States.
Where to find Egypt
Egypt lies in the northeastern corner of the African
continent, along the Nile River. The Nile flows through a vast
desert, including the Sahara, which separates Egypt from most
of Africa. To the northeast of Egypt is the Sinai (SIGH-nye)
Peninsula, which links Africa with the Asian land mass. To the
east is the Red Sea, which separates Africa from the Arabian
Peninsula. North of Egypt is the Mediterranean Sea, on the
shores of which many ancient civilizations developed. Today,
the region around Egypt is called the Middle East. To historians
studying the ancient world, this area is known as the Fertile
Crescent.

Nobles become Little PharaohsThe Growth of CultureTemple BuildingMaxims of PtahhotepHomely
SuperstitionsCharms to protect ChildrenFear of the Evil EyeSet and Redhaired BabesGruesome
GhostsFeudal Lords assert ThemselvesA Strong MonarchMilitary ExpeditionsThe Promotion of
UniComing of the DengA Queen's VengeanceRevolt of Feudal LordsPyramids raided.
DURING the Fifth Dynasty the power of the nobles gradually increased until they became little Pharaohs in
their own provinces. Even at the Court they could make their influence felt, and when they set out on
expeditions their successes received personal acknowledgment and were not recorded to the credit of an
overshadowing monarch. They recognized the official religion, but fostered the local religious cult, and in
their tombs related the stories of their own lives, boasting of their achievements and asserting the ethical
principles which justified them before Osiris. The age thus became articulate. Education was spreading, and
the accumulation of wealth promoted culture. The historic spirit had birth, and the scribes began to record the
events of the past and compile lists of kings. Among the tomb pictures of everyday life were inscribed
fragments of folksong, and it is evident that music was cultivated, for we find groups of harpers and flautists
and singers.
The religious energies of the Pharaohs were devotedmore to the building of temples than to the erection of
tombs. Ra worship introduced elaborate ceremonials, and large numbers of priests were engaged at
Heliopolis. At a later period we learn that over 12,000 persons were directly connected with the temples
there. The Pharaohs continued to reside in the vicinity of Memphis, and the Court was maintained with great
splendour; their tombs were erected at Abusir, farther south than those of the Khufu line of kings.
No wars of any consequence occurred during the Fifth Dynasty, but exploring expeditions were fitted out,
and in the time of Sahura, the second monarch, the coast of Somaliland, which was called Punt, was visited,
and there were large imports of gum and resins for incense in the temples, and of wood and precious metals.
The quarries in Sinai continued to be worked, and the name of Isôsi, the eighth monarch, is associated with
the working of black granite at Wadi Hammamat. We know little or nothing regarding the personalities of the
kings. They appear to have reigned with discretion and ability, for the age was one of political progress and
extending culture.
In the reign of King Dedka Ra Isôsito give him his full namethat famous collection of maxims, "The
Instruction of Ptah−hotep", was compiled. This production survives in the Prisse Papyrus, which was called
after the French archæologist who purchased it from a native in 1847. The author was Isôsi's grand vizier, and
he was evidently of Memphite birth and a Ptah worshipper, for his name signifies "Ptah is well pleased". He
lived over a thousand years before Hammurabi, the wise king of Babylon, and long ages ere Solomon
collected his Proverbs at Jerusalem.
The maxims of Ptah−hotep were for centuries copiedby boys in the schools of ancient Egypt. In their papyrus "copybooks" they were wont to inscribe the following phrases:
It is excellent for a son to obey his father.
He that obeys shall become one who is obeyed.
Carelessness to−day becomes disobedience to−morrow.
He that is greedy for pleasure will have an empty stomach.
A loose tongue causes strife.
He that rouses strife will inherit sorrow.
Good deeds are remembered after death.
The maxims afford us interesting glimpses of the life and culture of the times. Old Ptah−hotep is full of
worldly wisdom, and his motto is: "Do your duty and you will be happy". He advises his son to acquire
knowledge and to practise the virtues of right conduct and right living. His precepts are such as we would
expect to find among a people who conceived of an Osirian Judgment Hall in the next world.
The "Instruction" is dedicated to King Isôsi. The vizier feels the burden of years, and laments his fate. He
opens in this manner:
O King, my lord, I draw nigh to life's end,
To me the frailties of life have come
And second childhood. . . . Ah! the old lie down
Each day in suffering; the vision fails,
Ears become deaf and strength declines apace,
The mind is ill at case. . . . An old man's tongue
Has naught to say because his thoughts have fled,
And he forgets the day that has gone past. . . .
Meanwhile his body aches in every bone;
The sweet seems bitter, for all taste is lost
Ah! such are the afflictions of old age,
Which work for evil. . . . Fitful and weak
His breath becomes, standing or lying down.
Ptah−hotep then proceeds to petition the king to be released of his duties, so that his son may succeed him.
He desires to address to the young man the words of wisdom uttered by sages of old who listened when the
gods spake to them.
His Majesty at once gives his consent, and expresses the hope that Ptah−hotep's son will hearken with
understanding and become an example to princes. "Speak to him", adds the king, "without making him feel
weary."
The "Instruction" is fairly longover 4000 wordsso that it was necessary to have it copied out. We select a
few of the most representative maxims.
Do not be vain although you are well educated; speak to an illiterate man as you would to a wise one. After
all, there is a limit to cleverness; no worker is perfect. Courteous speech is more uncommon than the
emeralds which girl slaves find among the stones.
If you speak with an argumentative man who really knows more than you do yourself, listen respectfully to
him, and do not lose your temper if he differs from you.
If, however, an argumentative man knows less than you do, correct him and show him that you are the wiser of the two; others will approve of you and give you an excellent reputation.
If a man of low rank argues without knowledge, be silent. Do not speak angrily to him. It is not very
creditable to put such an one to shame.
When you become a leader, be courteous and see that your conduct is exemplary. . . . Do not tyrannize over
men. . . . It is he who gives to those who are in need that prospers; not the man who makes others afraid. . . .
Listen graciously to one who appeals to you. Let him speak frankly, and be ever ready to put an end to a
grievance. If a man is not inclined to tell everything he knows, it is because he to whom he speaks has the
reputation of not dealing fairly. A mind that is well controlled is always ready to consider. . . . See that your
employees are adequately rewarded, as is proper on the part of one to whom the god has
given much. It is well known that it is no easy thing to satisfy employees. One says to−day: "He is generous;
I may get much", and to−morrow: "He is a mean, exacting man". There is never peace in a town where
workers arc in miserable circumstances.
That man is never happy who is always engaged reckoning his accounts, but the man whose chief concern is
to amuse himself does not provide for his household. . . . If you become rich after having been poor, do not
bind your heart with your wealth; because you are the administrator of what the god has given you.
Remember that you are not the last, and that others will become as great as you. . . . Enjoy your life, and do
not occupy the entire day at your work. Wealth is no use to a worn−out man.
Love your wife; feed her and clothe her well; make her happy; do not deal sternly with her; kindness makes
her more obedient than harshness; if she yearns for something which pleasures her eye, see that she gets it. . .
. Do not be jealous, or despondent, or cross if you have no children. Remember that a father has his own
sorrows, and that a mother has more troubles than a childless woman. . . . How beautiful is the obedience of a
faithful son. The god loves obedience; he hates disobedience. A father rejoices in a son's obedience and
honours him. A son who hearkens to counsel guards his tongue and conducts himself well. A disobedient son
is foolish and never prospers. He blunders continually. . . . In the end he is avoided because he is a failure. . . .
A father should teach wisdom to his sons and daughters, so that they may be of good repute. When others
find them faithful and just, they will say: "That father has trained them well". . . . A good son is a treasure
given by the god.
Ptah−hotep reminds his son that when he goes to dine with a great man he should take what is given to him.
A nobleman gives the daintiest portions to those he likes best. He must not keep staring at his host, or speak
until he is spoken to; then he should answer readily. . . . When he is sent with a message from one nobleman
to another he should take care not to say anything which will cause strife between them. He should not repeat
what a nobleman said when in a temper"Let your heart be more generous than your speech," advises
Ptah−hotep as he draws his "Instruction" to a close. He hopes that his son will prosper as well as he himself
has prospered, and that he will satisfy the king by his actions. "I have lived", he adds, "for a hundred and ten
years, and have received more honours from His Majesty than did any of my ancestors, because I have been
just and honourable all through life."
Such was the ethical. but there was also a superstitious element in Egyptian domestic life. The people
believed that the world swarmed with spirits which were continually desiring to inflict injuries upon living
beings, and were abroad by day as well as by night. An amulet on which was depicted a human hand was
considered to be efficacious, and the Egyptian mother suspended it from a cord which was put round the
baby's neck. She tied a knot in the morning and another in the evening until there were seven knots in all. On
each occasion she repeated a formula over a knot, which was to the following effect: "Isis has twisted the
cord; Nepthys has smoothed it; and it will guard you, my bonnie bairn, and you will become strong and
prosper. The gods and the goddesses will be good to you, and the evil ones will be thwarted, the mouths of those who utter spells against you will be closed. . . . I know all their names, and may those, whose names I
know not, suffer also, and that quickly."
Erman, the German Egyptologist, has translated an interesting papyrus by an unknown scribe, which contains
the formulæ used to protect children. Some children were more liable to be attacked by evil spirits than
others. In Europe pretty children require special protection against the evil eye. Red−haired youngsters were
disliked because the wicked god Set was red−haired) and was likely to carry them away. Their mothers,
therefore, had to exercise special care with them, and there was a particular charm for their use. In Russia
red−haired people are believed to have more knowledge of magic than others, and are disliked on that
account.
The Egyptian ghosts, the enemies of the living, like the archaic deities, were of repulsive aspect. They came
from tombs in mummy bandages with cheeks of decaying flesh, flat noses, and eyes of horror, and entered a
room with averted faces, which were suddenly turned on children, who at once died of fright. They killed
sleeping babies by sucking their breath when they kissed, or rather smelled, them, and if children were
found crying they rocked them to sleepthe sleep of death.