Rival Cults Ptah as a Giant his Mountain "SeatParadise of Osirisap radise of Sun Worshippers Ideas of Hades
The Devil Serpent The Great Worm of the Bible The Nine Gods of Heliopolis Stone and Sun
Worship the Horus Cult Various Conceptions of the God union with other Deities legend of the Winged
DiskRa's Enemies slainSet as the "Roaring Serpent"sun Worshippers as Kings ptah Worshippers as
Grand ViziersUnas the Eater of GodsThe Egyptian Orion.
THE rise of the sun god had both theological and political significance. Ra was elevated as the Great Father
of a group of cosmic and human deities, and his high priest, who was evidently of royal descent, sat upon the
throne of united Egypt. The folk tale about the prophecy of Dedi and the birth of three children who were to
become kings appears to have been invented in later times to give divine origin to the revolution which
abruptly terminated the succession of Khufu's descendants.
An interesting contrast is afforded by the two great rival religions of this period of transition. While the
theology of Heliopolis was based upon sun worship, that of Memphis was based upon earth worship. Ptah,
the creation elf of the latter city, had been united with Tanen (or Tatûnen), the earth giant, who resembles
Seb. The dwarfish deity then assumed gigantic proportions, and became a "world god" or Great Father. A
hymn addressed to Ptah Tanen declares that his head is in
the heavens while his feet are on the earth or in Duat, the underworld. "The wind", declared the priestly poet,
"issues from thy nostrils and the waters from thy mouth. Upon thy back grows the grain. The sun and the
moon are thine eyes. When thou dost sleep it is dark, and when thou dost open thine eyes it is bright again."
Ptah Tanen was lauded as "a perfect god" who came forth "perfect in all his parts". At the beginning he was
all alone. He built up his body and shaped his limbs ere the sky was fashioned and the world was set in order,
and ere the waters issued forth. Unlike Ra, he did not rise from the primordial deep. "Thou didst discover
thyself", sang the Memphite poet, "in the circumstance of one who made for himself a seat and shaped the
Two Lands" (Upper and Lower Egypt). The suggestion is that, therefore, of a mountain giant with his 'seat' or
'chair' upon some lofty peak, an idea which only a hill folk could have imported.
"No father begot thee and no mother gave thee birth," the poet declared; "thou didst fashion thyself without
the aid of any other being."
The further union of Ptah with Osiris is reflected in the conception of a material Paradise) where the souls of
the dead were employed in much the same manner as the workers in Egypt. Ethical beliefs pervaded this religious system, as we have seen; men were judged after death; their future happiness was the reward of
right conduct and good living. Thus we find men declaring in tomb inscriptions:
"I have constructed this tomb by honest means. I have never stolen from another . . . . I have never seized by
force what belonged to another . . . . I was never scourged before an official (for law breaking) since I was
born. My conduct was admired by all men. . . . Igave food to those who hungered, and those who were
destitute I did clothe. . . . No man ever cried out to the god complaining against me as an oppressor."
Men died believing that Osiris would justify their actions. "I shall live like Osiris. He perished not when he
died, neither shall I perish when I die."
These professions continued to be recorded after the rise of the sun god. The new religion was embraced
mainly by the royal and aristocratic families and the Asiatic element in the population. It was infused by
magical rather than ethical beliefs; a man's future happiness depended wholly on his knowledge of magical
formulae and his devotion to religious rites.
The Paradise of the sun worshippers was of more spiritual character than that believed in by the cult of
Ptah−Osiris. Their great hope was to find a place in the sun bark of Ra. The chosen among the dead became
shining spirits, who accompanied their god on his safe journey through the perils of darkness, and they
partook of his celestial food and shared his celestial drink; they became one with Ra, and yet did not suffer
loss of identity.
It was taught by the priests of Heliopolis that after death the souls of mankind travelled towards the west and
entered the first hour−division of the dark underworld Duat. There, in Amenti, "the hidden region", they
awaited the coming of the bark of Ra. Those who could repeat the necessary magical "passwords" were
permitted to enter, and they journeyed onward in the brightness diffused by the god until they reached the
eastern horizon at dawn. Then they ascended the heavens and passed through happy fields. They could even
visit old friends and old haunts upon earth, but they had to return to the sun bark in the evening, because evil
spirits would devourthem in the darkness. So they sailed each night through the underworld. They lived in
eternal light.
Less fortunate souls resided in the various hour−divisions of Duat. Some were left in the first; others were
allowed to enter the sun bark until they reached the particular divisions to which the power of their magical
formulæ extended. These remained in darkness, faintly lit up by the fire which serpents spat out and the
flames of the torture pools, except for one of the four−and−twenty hours, when the sun bark appeared. Then
they enjoyed the blessings of sunlight and the special benefits conferred by Ra. Assembling on the river
banks they adored the passing deity, and when he departed their voices were raised in lamentation. They
enjoyed the privilege of having food supplied without labour.
The supernatural enemies of Ra were slain nightly by spears, which were sun rays, and knives, which were
flames of fire, as well as by powerful magic spells. When the god passed on, all the demons came to life
again. Ra's human enemies were those apparently who had not worshipped him upon earth. Such were
consigned to torture in lakes of everlasting fire. Later Egyptian beliefs retained the memory of this ancient
conception. The Copts peopled hell with demons who had the heads of serpents, crocodiles, lions, and even
bears. After death these "avengers" seized the doomed man and wrenched the soul from the body with much
violence. Then they stabbed and hacked it with knives, and thrust goads into its sides, and carried it to a river
of fire and plunged it in. Afterwards the tortured soul was cast into outer darkness, where it gnashed its teeth
in the bitter cold. It might also be consigned to a place of horror which swarmed with poisonous reptiles. But
although it could be wounded and hacked to pieces it did not perish. Intime the soul passed to the first
hour−division of Duat. Egypt swarmed with serpents in early times, and they were greatly dreaded by the
people. Even Ra feared them. He was bitten by the serpent which Isis created, and when he left the earth and ascended to heaven, after reigning over men, he spoke of them as his enemies, and provided magical spells so
that they might be overcome. Serpent charmers have not yet disappeared in the land of Egypt. They had great
repute in ancient days. Symbolic reference is made to their powers in the Bible. "Their poison", declared the
Psalmist, "is like the poison of a serpent; they are like the deaf adder that stopped her ear, which will not
hearken to the voice of charmers" (Psalm lviii, 4−5). In Jeremiah, viii, 17, we read: "I will send serpents,
cockatrices, among you which will not be charmed, and they shall bite you"; and in Ecclesiastes, xii: "Surely
the serpent will bite without enchantment". Those who have watched the genuine serpent charmers at work in
Egypt have testified to the efficacy of their wonderful powers.
In ancient Egypt serpents were believed, especially by the sun worshippers, to be incarnations of evil spirits.
Darkness, the enemy of light, was symbolized as the Apep serpent, which is also referred to as the Great
Worm. It rose up each night in the realms of Duat to destroy the sun bark and devour Ra. Occasionally it
issued forth in daylight, and appeared in darkening thunder clouds, when a dread battle was waged and
lightning spears were hurled against it. At dreaded eclipse it seemed to achieve temporary triumph. In this
respect the Apep serpent resembled the Chinese dragon.
When Ra was in peril the priests chanted powerful spells to assist him, and the people assembled and shouted
together to scare away the monster of darkness and evil. The ordinary ritual of the sun worshippers provided
magical formulæ which were recited to render service to the god at regular intervals. Written spells were also
considered to be efficacious, and these were inscribed with green ink upon new papyrus, which was burned.
Belief in sympathetic magic is reflected in the ceremony of making and destroying a green wax figure of the
great serpent. At midnight, when Ra began his return journey, and the power of evil was strongest, the wax
figure was placed in a fire and spat upon. As it melted, the pious worshippers of the sun god believed that the
Apep serpent suffered loss of power. The ashes of the figure and of the papyrus were afterwards mixed with
filth and committed to the flames a second time. It was also customary to make wax models of the serpent
fiends which assisted Apep, and they were given the heads of black and white cats crocodiles, and ducks.
Stone knives were stuck in their backs, and they were thrown in the dust and kicked with the left foot.
Symbolic references are also made in the Bible to the great Egyptian serpent. In Isaiah, lxvi, 24, we read:
"Their worm shall not die, neither shall their fire be quenched, and they shall be an abhorring to all flesh";
and also: "The worm shall eat them like wool" (li, 8). In Coptic literature the Apep serpent is a monster which
lies in outer darkness encircling the world and clutching its tail between its jaws, like the Midgard serpent of
Norse mythology. From its mouth issues forth "All ice, dust, cold, disease, and sickness" (Pistis Sophia).
The idea that the sun was an incarnation of the Creator was imported from Asia, but the conception of Duat,
with its lakes of fire, is of Egyptian origin. In the Babylonian Hades, to which Istar descended, eternal
darkness prevailed, and doomed souls partook of filthy food and drank unclean waters; they were not tortured
by flames, but by pestilent odours and by diseases.'
Ra theology developed upon Egyptian lines, and was fused with pre−existing local beliefs. The sun bark,
which was called "Bark of Millions of Years", sailed upon an underworld Nile by night and a celestial Nile
by day, and the seasonal changes of its course over the heavens were accounted for by the celestial
inundation. Ra occupied the Maadit bark in the forenoon, and the Sekti bark in the afternoon. The change was
effected at noon, when special magical formulæ were chanted.
As the theology of the sun worshippers developed at Heliopolis, other gods, which were imported or had their
origin in Egypt, were included in the divine family. The number three and its multiple had evidently magical
significance. Ra, Khepera, and Tum formed the sun triad. The sun god and his children and descendants: Nut,
the heavens, Shu, the air, Seb, the earth, with the lioness−headed Tefnut, "the spitter", Osiris, the deified king
and corn spirit, Isis, the Delta "Great Mother",and her sister Nepthys, and the Semitic Set, formed the Ennead of Heliopolis. The group of Nine Gods varied
at different periods. In one Horus displaces Set, and in another Osiris is absent and his place is occupied by
Khepera, the beetle god. The inclusion of Horus probably marks the union of the Horite creed with that of Ra.
Attempts were frequently made by kings and priests to absorb the Osiran cult at Heliopolis, but they were
never successful. A compromise was evidently effected in time, for in Duat a "division" was allocated to
Osiris, and there he judged his followers. Ultimately the two ideas of Paradise were confused rather than
fused, and in the end the earlier faith achieved the victory after centuries of repression. We have already
noted that Ptah was rigidly excluded from the Ennead of the sun worshippers.
Archaic religious beliefs also received recognition at Heliopolis. The priests of the sun were evidently
prepared to recognize any god so long as Ra was acknowledged as the Great Father. They not only tolerated
but perpetuated the worship of trees and wells, and of stones and sacred mounds. Reverence is still shown for
the well in which Ra was wont to wash his face daily, and it is called by the Arabs "the spring of the sun". A
sycamore near it is also regarded with veneration. Sacrifices were offered up on a holy sand mound, and the
custom prevailed at funeral services in tombs of setting up the mummy case in erect position on a heap of
sand. One of the spirits of the sun god was believed to inhabit a great block of stone. Indeed On, the
Egyptian name of the sacred "city of the sun", signifies "stone pillar". In the Fifth Dynasty the Ra kings
erected
roofless temples in which there towered great broad obelisks surmounting mastaba−like square platforms.
One of these stone idols at Abusir measured 138 feet at the base, and was 111 feet high. Outside the temple
was a brick sun bark over 90 feet in length.
This form of temple was discontinued after the Sixth Dynasty, when the political power of the Ra priests was
undermined. The tradition of stone worship survived, however, in the custom of erecting in front of temples
those shapely obelisks similar to the familiar "Cleopatra's needle" on the Thames Embankment. One still
remains erect at Matarieh (Heliopolis) to mark the site of a vanished temple. It bears the name of King
Senusert I of the Twelfth Dynasty.
The religion of the Horite sun worshippers, which was introduced by the Dynastic Egyptians who pressed
northwards and conquered the whole land, appears to have differed from that of the Ra cult. It is not possible
now to distinguish the original form of the tribal god, or to discover what particular religious rites were
associated with him. There are several forms of Horus. The most familiar is the hawk, which symbolized the
spirit of the sun. It protected the early kings, who were "the priests or descendants of Horus"a royal title
which continued ever afterwards in use. Like the Ra cult, the cult of Horus absorbed Egyptian beliefs, and the
conception of the hawk god varied accordingly in different districts.
The two outstanding Horuses arc the elder and the youngerthe Horus who was the brother of Osiris an−d the
Horus child who was the son of Osiris and Isis.
Horus of Letopolis, near Memphis, was a hawk−headed man and the son of Hathor, the sky goddess. In
Upper Egypt he was similarly represented, or simplyas a hawk. At Edfu in particular he has the attributes of a
sky god, and at Shedenu, a city in Lower Egypt, he was "Horus of the Two Eyes", the sun being one and the
moon another, thus resembling the conception of Ptah Tanen. He was also Harmachis, "Horus of the Two
Horizons", and in this character became one of the chief forms of Ra. As the "golden Horus" he was a dawn
god, and in this character received the dead in the Judgment Hall of Osiris. The planet Saturn was "Horus the
Bull", Mars was "Red Horus", and Jupiter "Horus, revealer of secrets". At Letopolis a temple was erected to
"Horus of Not Seeing". In this form he is supposed to have represented the sun at solar eclipse, but he may
have simply represented the firmament at night. It is possible that Hathor, as the chaos cow, was originally
the Great Mother; and that the sky, sun, moon, and stars were the various forms assumed by her son Horus, or
her various Horus sons.
When the child Horus became the son of Isis there may have been simply a change of mother. Isis and Hathor
are similar conceptions, indeed the deities were ultimately confused. Both also resemble Nut as Great
Mothers, but Nut represented Mother Heaven and Isis Mother Earth, while Hathor was the World Cow,
representing fertility in that form. Nut was also represented as a cat. In her human form she gave birth to the
sun daily, and the moon every month, and in another conception the sun and moon were her eyes. Ere Ra
became the "Great Father" he was born of Nut.
The tribal aspect of the Osiris, Isis, and Horus myth is dealt with in a previous chapter. There is abundant
evidence in Egyptian mythology that the union of deities signified the union of the tribes which worshipped
them. The multiplicity of deities was due to the fact that anoriginal conception remained in its old tribal form,
and was perpetuated alongside the new conception. Two gods might be fused into one, but Egypt retained not
only the new deity, but the two old deities as well, and thus instead of one god we have three. We need not be
surprised, therefore, to find more than one Horus. The name alone may survive in some cases, for the process
of blending varied in districts and at various periods. Egyptian religion is made up of many forms of faith.
Horus was united with Ra as Harmachis, and the sun god of Heliopolis became Ra Harmachis. The hawk god
was thus symbolized as the winged sun disk. The legend which was invented to account for the change may
here be summarized.
When Ra reigned as king over Egypt he sailed up the Nile towards Nubia, because his enemies were plotting
against him. At Edfu Horus entered the bark of the great god and hailed him as father. Ra greeted the hawk
god and entreated him to slay the rebels of Nubia. Then Horus flew up to the sun as a great winged disk, and
he was afterwards called "the great god, the lord of the sky". He perceived the enemies of Ra, and went
against them as a winged disk. Their eyes were blinded by his brightness, and their ears were made deaf, and
in the confusion they slew one another. Not a single conspirator remained alive.
Horus returned to the bark of Ra, and from that day he became Horus, god of Edfu, in the form of a winged
sun disk. Ka embraced him and said: "Thou hast made the water wine−red with blood, and my heart is glad."
Ra afterwards visited the battlefield, and, when he saw the dead bodies of his foes, he said: "Life is pleasant."
The name of the place thus became Horbehûdti, which means "Pleasant Life".The slain men were covered by
water (at inundation) and became crocodiles and hippopotami. Then they attacked Horus as he sailed past;
but his servants slew them with iron lances. Thoth rejoiced with glad heart when he beheld the enemies of Ra
lying dead.
The legend continues in this strain, and relates that Horus pursued the enemies of the god Ra downstream.
Apparently Egypt was full of them. We then learn that they were the followers of Set, who was driven
towards the frontier. He was afterwards taken prisoner, and with manacled hands and a spear stuck in his
neck he was brought before Ra. Then we find that there are two Horuses. The elder Horus is commanded by
the sun god to deliver Set to Horus, son of Isis. The younger Horus cuts off the head of Set, and the slayer of
Osiris becomes a roaring serpent which seeks refuge in a hole and is commanded to remain there.
Osiris is not mentioned in the legend, and Ra refers to the younger Horus as his own son. Apparently the
theorists of Heliopolis desired Ra to supplant Osiris. Place names are played upon so that their origin may be
ascribed to something said by the sun god, and grammatical construction is occasionally ignored with this
end in view.
Horus worship never became popular in Egypt. It was absorbed by the various cults, so that, as we have
indicated, its original form is confused. The religion of the sun cult at Heliopolis, which was imported by the
Asiatic settlers, was the religion which received prominence at the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty. A new
title was given to the Pharaoh. He became the "Son of the Sun" as well as "Priest of Horus", "Priest of Set","lord of the north and south", &c.
The rise of the sun god involved far−reaching politicalissues. Although the high priest of Ra sat upon the
throne, he did not become a tyrannical dictator like a Fourth−Dynasty king. A compromise had to be effected
with the powerful faction at Memphis, and the high priest of Ptah became the vizier, a post previously held by
the Pharaoh's chosen successor. Nome governors were also given extended powers as administrators, as a
reward probably for the share they had taken in the revolution, or at any rate to conciliate them and secure
their allegiance. This decentralizing process weakened the ruling power, but Egypt appears to have prospered
as a whole, and the peaceful conditions which prevailed imparted activity to its intellectual life, as we shall
see. Small and roughly constructed pyramid tombs were erected by the monarchs, who could no longer
command an unlimited supply of labour.
The Fifth Dynasty lasted for about a century and a quarter. It began with Userkaf, the first babe mentioned in
the Dedi folk tale, and he was succeeded in turn by the other two, who were not, however, his brothers. The
ninth and last king of the Dynasty was Unas. In the so−called "Pyramid Texts", in his own tomb and that of
Teta, the first king of the Sixth Dynasty, the monarch was deified as a star god, and has been identified with
the constellation of Orion. The conception is a remarkable one. It smacks of absolute savagery, and we seem
to be confronted with a symbolic revival of pre−Dynastic cannibalistic rites which are suggested, according
to Maspero, by the gnawed and disconnected bones found in certain early graves. At the original Sed festival
the tribal king, as Professor Petrie suggests, appears to have been sacrificed and devoured, so that his people
might derive from his flesh and blood the power and virtues which made him great. Thepractice was based on
belief in contagious magic. Bulls and boars were eaten to give men strength and courage, deer to give
fleetness of foot, and serpents to give cunning. The blood of wounded warriors was drunk so that their skill
and bravery might be imparted to the drinkers. King Unas similarly feasts after death on "the spirits" known
at Heliopolis as "the fathers and the mothers", and on the bodies of men and gods. He swallows their spirits,
souls, and names, which are contained in their hearts, livers, and entrails, and consequently becomes great
and all−powerful. The resemblance to the man−eating giants of Europe is very striking.
The rendering which follows of the remarkable Unas hymn is fairly close. It is cast in metrical form with
endeavour to reproduce the spirit of the original.
ORION IN EGYPT
Now heaven rains, and trembles every star
With terror; bowmen scamper to escape;
And quakes old Aker, lion of the earth,
While all his worshippers betake to flight,
For Unas rises and in heaven appears
Like to a god who lived upon his sires
And on his mothers fed.
Unas the lord
Of wisdom is; the secret of his Name
Not e'en his mother knows. . . . His rank is high
In heaven above; his power is like to Tum's,
His sire divine. . . . Greater than Tum is he.
His shadowy doubles follow him behind
As he comes forth. The uræus on his brow
Uprears; the royal serpent guides him on;
He sees his Ba a flame of living fire.
The strength of Unas shields him. . . He is now
The Bull of Heaven, doing as he wills,
Feeding on what gives life unto the gods
Their food he eats who would their bellies fill
With words of power from the pools of flame.
Against the spirits shielded by his might,
Unas arises now to take his meal
Men he devours; he feasts upon the gods
This lord who reckons offerings: he who makes
Each one to bow his forehead, bending low.
Amkenhuu is snarer; Herthertu
Hath bound them well; and Khonsu killer is
Who cuts the throats and tears the entrails out
'Twas he whom Unas sent to drive them in . . .
Divided by Shesemu, now behold
The portions cooking in the fiery pots.
Unas is feasting on their secret Names;
Unas devours their spirits and their souls
At morn he eats the largest, and at eve
The ones of middle girth, the small at night:
Old bodies are the faggots for his fire.
Lo! mighty Unas makes the flames to leap
With thighs of agèd ones, and into pots
Are legs of women flung that he may feast.
Unas, the Power, is the Power of Powers!
Unas, the mighty god, is god of gods!
Voraciously he feeds on what he finds,
And he is given protection more assured
Than all the mummies 'neath the western sky.
Unas is now the eldest over all
Thousands he ate and hundreds he did burn;
He rules o'er Paradise. . . .Among the gods
His soul is rising up in highest heaven
The Crown is he as the horizon lord.
He reckoned livers as he reckoned knots;
The hearts of gods he ate and they are his;
He swallowed up the White Crown and the Red,
And fat of entrails gulped; the secret Names
Are in his belly and he prospers well
Lo! he devoured the mind of every god,
And so shall live for ever and endure
Eternally, to do as he desires.
The souls of gods are now in his great soul;
Their spirits in his spirit; he obtains
Food in abundance greater than the gods
His fire has seized their bones, and lo! their souls
Are Unas's; their shades are with their forms.
Unas ascends. . . . Unas ascends with these
Unas is hidden, is hidden . . . . An One
For him hath ploughed . . . . The seat of every heart Is
Unas's among all living men.

A Faithless LadyThe Wax CrocodilePharaoh's DecreeStory of the Green JewelA Sad−hearted
KingBoating on the LakeHow the Waters were dividedDedi the MagicianHis Magical FeatsA
Prophecy Khufu's Line must fallBirth of the Future KingsGoddesses as Dancing GirlsGhostly Music
and SongTale of a King's TreasureFearless ThievesA Brother's BraveryPharaoh's Soldiers are
trickedHow a Robber became a PrinceKing visits the Underworld.
KING KHUFU sat to hear tales told by his sons regarding the wonders of other days and the doings of
magicians. The Prince Khafra stood before him and related the ancient story of the wax crocodile.
Once upon a time a Pharaoh went towards the temple of the god Ptah. His counsellers and servants
accompanied him. It chanced that he paid a visit to the villa of the chief scribe, behind which there was a
garden with a stately summer house and a broad artificial lake. Among those who followed Pharaoh was a
handsome youth, and the scribe's wife beheld him with love. Soon afterwards she sent gifts unto him, and
they had secret meetings. They spent a day in the summer house, and feasted there, and in the evening the
youth bathed in the lake. The chief butler then went to his master and informed him what had come to pass.
The scribe bade the servant to bring a certain magic box, and when he received it he made a small wax
crocodile, over which he muttered a spell. He placedit in the hands of the butler, saying: "Cast this image into
the lake behind the youth when next he bathes himself "
On another day, when the scribe dwelt with Pharaoh, the lovers were together in the summer house, and at
eventide the youth went into the lake. The butler stole through the garden, and stealthily he cast into the water
the wax image, which was immediately given life. It became a great crocodile that seized the youth suddenly
and took him away.
Seven days passed, and then the scribe spoke to the Pharaoh regarding the wonder which had been done, and
made request that His Majesty should accompany him to his villa. The Pharaoh did so, and when they both
stood beside the lake in the garden the scribe spoke magic words, bidding the crocodile to appear. As he
commanded, so did it do. The great reptile came out of the water carrying the youth in its jaws.
The scribe said: "Lo! it shall do whatever I command to be done."
Said the Pharaoh: "Bid the crocodile to return at once to the lake."
Ere he did that, the scribe touched it, and immediately it became a small image of wax again. The Pharaoh
was filled with wonder, and the scribe related unto him all that had happened, while the youth stood waiting.
Said His Majesty unto the crocodile: "Seize the wrongdoer." The wax image was again given life, and,
clutching the youth, leaped into the lake and disappeared. Nor was it ever seen after that.
Then Pharaoh gave command that the wife of the scribe should be seized. On the north side of the house she
was bound to a stake and burned alive, and what remained of her was thrown into the Nile.Such was the tale
told by Khafra. Khufu was well pleased, and caused offerings of food and refreshment to be placed in the
tombs of the Pharaoh and his wise servant.
Prince Khafra stood before His Majesty, and said: "I will relate a marvel which happened in the days of King
Sneferu, thy father." Then he told the story of the green jewel.
Sneferu was one day disconsolate and weary. He wandered about the palace with desire to be cheered, nor
was there aught to take the gloom from his mind. He caused his chief scribe to be brought before him, and
said: "I would fain have entertainment, but cannot find any in this place."
The scribe said: "Thy Majesty should go boating on the lake, and let the rowers be the prettiest girls in your
harem. It will delight your heart to see them splashing the water where the birds dive and to gaze upon the
green shores and the flowers and trees. I myself will go with you."
The king consented, and twenty virgins who were fair to behold went into the boat, and they rowed with oars
of ebony which were decorated with gold. His Majesty took pleasure in the outing, and the gloom passed
from his heart as the boat went hither and thither, and the girls sang together with sweet voices.
It chanced, as they were turning round, an oar handle brushed against the hair of the girl who was steering,
and shook from it a green jewel, which fell into the water. She lifted up her oar and stopped singing, and the
others grew silent and ceased rowing.
Said Sneferu: "Do not pause; let us go on still farther."
The girls said: "She who steers has lifted her oar."Said Sneferu to her: "Why have you lifted your oar?"
"Alas, I have lost my green jewel she said it has fallen into the lake."
Sneferu said: "I will give you another; let us go on."
The girl pouted and made answer: "I would rather have my own green jewel again than any other."
His Majesty said to the chief scribe: "I am given great enjoyment by this novelty; indeed my mind is much
refreshed as the girls row me up and down the lake. Now one of them has lost her green jewel, which has
dropped into the water, and she wants it back again and will not have another to replace it."
The chief scribe at once muttered a spell. Then by reason of his magic words the waters of the lake were
divided like a lane. He went down and found the green jewel which the girl had lost, and came back with it to
her. When he did that, he again uttered words of power, and the waters came together as they were before.
The king was well pleased, and when he had full enjoyment with the rowing upon the lake he returned to the
palace. He gave gifts to the chief scribe, and everyone wondered at the marvel which he had accomplished.
Such was Khafra's tale of the green jewel, and King Khufu commanded that offerings should be laid in the
tombs of Sneferu and his chief scribe, who was a great magician.
Next Prince Hordadef stood before the king, and he said: "Your Majesty has heard tales regarding the
wonders performed by magicians in other days, but I can bring forth a worker of marvels who now lives in
the kingdom."
King Khufu said: "And who is he, my son?""His name is Dedi," answered Prince Hordadef. "He is a very old
man, for his years are a hundred and ten. Each day he eats a joint of beef and five hundred loaves of bread,
and drinks a hundred jugs of beer. He can smite off the head of a living creature and restore it again; he can
make a lion follow him; and he knows the secrets of the habitation of the god Thoth, which Your Majesty has
desired to know so that you may design the chambers of your pyramid."
King Khufu said: "Go now and find this man for me, Hordadef."
The prince went down to the Nile, boarded a boat, and sailed southward until he reached the town called
Dedsnefru, where Dedi had his dwelling. He went ashore, and was carried in his chair of state towards the
magician, who was found lying at his door. When Dedi was awakened, the king's son saluted him and bade
him not to rise up because of his years. The prince said: "My royal father desires to honour you, and will
provide for you a tomb among your people."
Dedi blessed the prince and the king with thankfulness, and he said to Hordadef: "Greatness be thine; may
your Ka have victory over the powers of evil, and may your Khu follow the path which leads to Paradise."
Hordadef assisted Dedi to rise up, and took his arm to help him towards the ship. He sailed away with the
prince, and in another ship were his assistants and his magic books.
"Health and strength and plenty be thine," said Hordadef, when he again stood before his royal father King
Khufu. "I have come down stream with Dedi, the great magician."
His Majesty was well pleased, and said: "Let the man be brought into my presence."Dedi came and saluted
the king, who said: "Why have I not seen you before?"
"He that is called cometh," answered the old man; "you have sent for me and I am here."
"It is told," King Khufu said, "that you can restore the head that is taken from a live creature."
"I can indeed, Your Majesty," answered Dedi.
The king said: "Then let a prisoner be brought forth and decapitated."
"I would rather it were not a man," said Dedi; "I do not deal even with cattle in such a manner."
A duck was brought forth and its head was cut off, and the head was thrown to the right and the body to the
left. Dedi spoke magic words. Then the head and the body came together, and the duck rose up and quacked
loudly. The same was done with a goose.
King Khufu then caused a cow to be brought in, and its head was cut off. Dedi restored the animal to life
again, and caused it to follow him.
His Majesty then spoke to the magician and said: "It is told that you possess the secrets of the dwelling of the
god Thoth."
Dedi answered: "I do not possess them, but I know where they are concealed, and that is within a temple
chamber at Heliopolis. There the plans are kept in a box, but it is no insignificant person who shall bring
them to Your Majesty."
"I would fain know who will deliver them unto me," King Khufu said.
Dedi prophesied that three sons would be born to Rud−dedit, wife of the chief priest of Ra. The eldest would
become chief priest at Heliopolis and would
possess the plans. He and his brothers would one day sit upon the throne and rule over all the land.
King Khufu's heart was filled with gloom and alarm when he heard the prophetic words of the great magician.
Dedi then said: "What are your thoughts, O King? Behold your son will reign after you, and then his son. But
next one of these children will follow."
King Khufu was silent. Then he spoke and asked: "When shall these children be born?"
Dedi informed His Majesty, who said: "I will visit the temple of Ra at that time."
Dedi was honoured by His Majesty, and thereafterwards dwelt in the house of the Prince Hordadef. He was
given daily for his portion an ox, a thousand loaves of bread, a hundred jugs of beer, and a hundred bunches
of onions.
The day came when the sons of the woman Rud−dedit were to be born. Then the high priest of Ra, her
husband, prayed unto the goddess Isis and her sister Nepthys; to Meskhent, goddess of birth; and to the frog
goddess Hekt; and to the creator god Khnûmû, who gives the breath of life. These he entreated to have care
of the three babes who were to become three kings of Egypt, one after the other.
The deities heard him. Then came the goddesses as dancing girls, who went about the land, and the god
Khnûmû followed them as their burden bearer. When they reached the door of the high priest's dwelling they
danced before him. He entreated them to enter, and they did according to his desire, and shut themselves in
the room with the woman Rud−dedit.
Isis called the first child who was born Userkaf, and said: "Let no evil be done by him". The goddess
Meskhent prophesied that he would become King ofEgypt. Khnûmû, the creator god, gave the child strength.
The second babe was named Sahura by the goddess Isis. Meskhent prophesied that he also would become a
king. Khnûmû gave him his strength.
The third was called Kaka. Meskhent said: "He shall also be a king", and Khnûmû gave him strength.
Ere the dancing girls took their departure the high priest gave a measure of barley to their burden bearer, and
Khnûmû carried it away upon his shoulders.
They all went upon their way, and Isis said: "Now let us work a wonder on behalf of these children, so that
their father may know who hath sent us unto his house.
Royal crowns were fashioned and concealed in the measure of barley which had been given them. Then the
deities caused a great storm to arise, and in the midst of it they returned to the dwelling of the high priest, and
they put the barley in a cellar, and sealed it, saying they would return again and take it away.
It came to pass that after fourteen days Rud−dedit bade her servant to bring barley from the cellar so that beer
might be made.
The girl said: "There is none left save the measure which was given unto the dancing girls."
"Bring that then," said Rud−dedit, "and when the dancing girls return I will give them its value."
When the servant entered the cellar she heard the low sounds of sweet music and dancing and song. She went
and told her mistress of this wonder, and Rud−dedit entered the cellar, and at first could not discover whence
the mysterious sounds issued forth. At length she placed her ear against the sack which contained the barley
given to the dancing girls, and found that the music was within it. She at once placed the sack in achest and
locked it, and then told her husband, and they rejoiced together.
Now it happened that one day Rud−dedit was angry with her servant, and smote her heavily. The girl vowed
that she would be avenged and said: "Her three children will become kings. I will inform King Khufu of this
matter."
So the servant went away and visited her uncle, who was her mother's eldest brother. Unto him she told all
that had happened and all she knew regarding the children of her mistress.
He was angry with her and spoke, saying: "Why come to me with this secret? I cannot consent to make it
known as you desire."
Then he struck the girl, who went afterwards to draw water from the Nile. On the bank a crocodile seized her,
and she was devoured.
The man then went towards the dwelling of Rud−dedit and he found her mourning with her head upon her
knees. He spoke, saying: "Why is your heart full of gloom?"
Rud−dedit answered him: "Because my servant girl went away to reveal my secret."
The man bowed and said: "Behold! she came unto me and told me all things. But I struck her, and she went
towards the river and was seized by a crocodile."'
So was the danger averted. Nor did King Khufu ever discover the babes regarding whom Dedi had
prophesied. In time they sat upon the throne of Egypt.
A folk tale regarding the king who reigned in Egypt
before Khufu was related by a priest to Herodotus, the Greek historian.
The monarch was called Rhampsinitus. He built the western portion of the temple of Ptah. He also erected
two statuesone to Summer, which faced the north, and was worshipped; and the other to Winter, which
faced the south, but was never honoured. The king possessed great wealth, and he caused to be constructed
beside the palace a strong stone chamber in which he kept his riches. One of the builders, however, contrived
to place a stone in such a manner that it could be removed from the outside.
It chanced that, after the king had deposited his treasure in the chamber, this builder was stricken with illness
and knew his end was nigh. He had two sons, and he told them his secret regarding the stone, and gave them
the measurements, so that they might locate it.
After the man died the sons went forth in the darkness of night, and when they found the stone they removed
it. Then they entered the chamber, and carried away much treasure, and ere they departed they closed up the
wall again.
The king marvelled greatly when he discovered that his riches had been plundered, for the seals of the door were unbroken, and he knew not whom to suspect. Again and again the robbers returned, and the treasure
diminished greatly. At length the king caused traps to be laid in the chamber, for his guards, who kept watch
at the entrances, were unable to prevent the mysterious robberies.
Soon after the brothers returned. They removed the stone, and one of them entered stealthily. He went
towards the treasure, as was his custom, but was suddenly caught in a trap. In a moment he realized that
escapewas impossible, and he reflected that he would be put to death on the morrow, while his brother would
be seized and similarly punished. So he said to himself: "I alone will die."
When he had thus resolved to save his brother, he called to him softly in the darkness, bidding him to enter
cautiously. He made known his great misfortune, and said: "I cannot escape, nor dare you tarry long lest you
be discovered, When they find me here I will be recognized, and they will seize you and put you to death. Cut
off my head at once, so that they may not know who I am, and thus save your own life."
With a sad heart the brother did as he was desired, and carried away the head. Ere he escaped in the darkness
he replaced the stone, and no man saw him.
When morning came the king was more astounded than ever to find a headless body entrapped in the treasure
chamber, for the door had not been opened, and yet two men had entered and one had escaped. He
commanded that the corpse should be hung on the palace wall, and stationed guards at the place, bidding
them to keep strict watch, so that they might discover if anyone came to sorrow for the dead man. But no one
came nigh.
Meanwhile the mother grieved in secret. Her heart was filled with anger because the body was exposed in
such a manner, and she threatened to inform the king regarding all that had happened if her other son would
not contrive to carry away the corpse. The young man attempted to dissuade her, but she only repeated her
threat, and that firmly. He therefore made preparations to obtain possession of the corpse.
He hired several asses, and on their backs he put many skins of wine. In the evening he drove them towards
the palace. When he drew near to the guardswho kept watch over his brother's body he removed the stoppers
of some of the skins. The wine ran forth upon the highway, and he began to lament aloud, and beat his head
as if he were in sore distress. The soldiers ran towards the asses and seized them, and caught the wine in
vessels, claiming it for themselves. At first the brother pretended to be angry, and abused the men; but when
they had pacified him, as they thought, he spoke to them pleasantly and began to make secure the stoppers of
all the skins.
In a short time he was chatting with the guards, and pretended to be much amused when they bantered him
over the accident. Then he invited them to drink, and they filled their flasks readily. So they began, and the
young man poured out wine until they were all made very drunk. When they fell asleep, the cunning fellow
took down his brother's body, and laid it upon the back of one of the asses. Ere he went away he shaved the
right cheeks of the soldiers. His mother welcomed him on his return in the darkness and was well pleased.
The king was very angry when he discovered how the robber had tricked the guards, but he was still
determined to have him taken. He sent forth his daughter in disguise, and she waited for the criminal. She
spoke to several men, and at length she found him, because he came to know that he was sought and desired
to deal cunningly with her. So he addressed her, and she offered to be his bride if he would tell her the most
artful thing and also the most wicked thing he had ever done.
He answered readily: "The most wicked thing I ever did was to cut off my brother's head when he was caught
in a trap in the royal treasure chamber, and the most artful was to deceive the king's guards and carry away
the body."The princess tried to seize him, but he thrust forth his brother's arm, which he carried under his robe, and when she clutched it he made speedy escape.
Great was then the astonishment of the king at the cunning and daring of the robber. He caused a
proclamation to be made, offering him a free pardon and a generous reward if he would appear at the palace
before him. The man went readily, and His Majesty was so delighted with his speeches and great ingenuity
that he gave him his daughter in marriage. There is no more artful people than the Egyptians, but this man
had not his equal in the land.
It was told that this same king journeyed to the land of Death, where he played dice with the goddess Isis
and now won and now lost. She gave to him a napkin embroidered with gold, and on his return a great
festival was held, and it was repeated every year thereafter. On such occasions it was customary to blindfold
a priest and lead him to the temple of Isis, where he was left alone. It was believed that two wolves met him
and conducted him back to the spot where he was found. The Egyptians esteemed Isis and Osiris as the
greatest deities of the underworld.

Zoser and SneferuTheir Great TombsSneferu's Battles with InvadersMastabas of OfficialsThe Grand
VizierA New DynastyKhufu the Tyrant KingHis Great PyramidThe World's Greatest Stone
StructureAn Army of WorkersHow the Pyramids were builtRocking MachinesA Religious
RevolutionThe Gods of the Sun CultPtah excludedKing KhafraMenkaura the just KingThe Sacred
HeiferKhufu's Line overthrown.
WHEN the great pyramids were being erected Egypt was already a land of ancient memories. Some of the
royal tombs at Abydos were a thousand years old. Folk tales had gathered round the memories of notable
kings; their order was confused and not a few were quite forgotten.
Zoser and Sneferu of the Third Dynasty are really the first Egyptian monarchs of whom we obtain any accurate idea. They were forceful personalities. We trace Zoser's activities in Sinai, where he continued to
work the copper mines from which several of his predecessors had obtained supplies of indispensable metal.
He waged war on the southern frontier, which he extended below the First Cataract, and he imposed his rule
firmly over the north. That peace prevailed all over the kingdom is evident; otherwise he could not have
devoted so much time to the erection of his great tomb, at which a great army of workmen were kept
continuously employed.
Sneferu, whose very name suggests swiftness ofdecision and unswerving purpose, impressed himself on the
imagination of the Egyptians for many generations. When a great national achievement was accomplished it
became customary to remark that no such success had been attained "since the days of Sneferu". He battled
against Asian hordes who invaded the Delta region, and erected forts, like a chain of blockhouses, across the
frontier, and these were associated with his name for over ten centuries. In Sinai there was trouble regarding
the copper mines. Other people had begun to work them and disputed right of possession with the Egyptians.
Sneferu conducted a vigorous and successful campaign, and so firmly established his power in that region
that his spirit was worshipped generations afterwards as the protecting god of the mines. His ambitions were
not confined to land, for he caused great ships to be built and he traded with Crete and the Syrian coast. The
cedars of Lebanon were then cut and drifted to the Nile by Egyptian mariners. In the south Nubia was dealt
with firmly. We gather that thousands of prisoners were captured and taken north as slaves to be employed,
apparently, at the building of temples and tombs. Two pyramids are attributed to Sneferu, the greatest of
which is situated at Medum.
The power and wealth of the officials had increased greatly. Their mastabas, which surround the royal tombs,
are of greater and more elaborate construction. Pharaoh was no longer hampered with the details of
government. A Grand Vizier controlled the various departments of State, and he was the supreme judge to
whom final appeals were made by the Courts. There were also a "Chancellor of the Exchequer" and officials
who controlled the canals and secured an equitable distribution of water. There were governors of nomes and
towns,and even villages had their "chief men". To secure the effective control of the frontier, always
threatened by raids from Nubia, a local vizier was appointed to quell outbreaks, and troops were placed at his
disposal. These high offices were usually held by princes and noblemen, but apparently it was possible for
men of humble rank to attain distinction and be promoted, like Joseph, to positions of influence and
responsibility. In mastaba chapels there are proud records of promotion acquired by capable and successful
officials who began life as scribes and were governors ere they died.
The Fourth Dynasty begins with Khufu the Great, the Cheops of the Greeks, who erected the largest pyramid
in Egypt. His relationship to Sneferu. is uncertain. He was born in the Beni Hassan district, and was probably
the son of a nobleman of royal birth. Sneferu may have left no direct heir or one who was a weakling. There
is no record or tradition of a revolution, and it may be that Khufu was already a prominent figure at the Court
when he seized the crown. In his harem was a lady who enjoyed the confidence of his predecessor, and it is
possible that matters were arranged in his interests in that quarter.
No statues of Khufu survive. These were probably destroyed when, a few centuries after his death, his tomb
was raided and his mummy torn to pieces, for he was remembered as a great tyrant. So much was he hated
that Herodotus was informed by the priests that he "degenerated into the extremest profligacy of conduct". He
barred the avenues to every temple and forbade the Egyptians to offer sacrifices. He proceeded next to make
them labour as slaves for himself. Some he compelled to hew stones n the quarries of the Arabian mountains
and drag them to the banks of the Nile;others were selected to load vessels. . . . A hundred thousand men
were employed." But the memory of ancient wrongs was perpetuated by the priests not merely in sympathy
for the workers and those who had to bear the burdens of taxation. A religious revolution was imminent. The
sun worshippers at Heliopolis were increasing in numbers and power, and even in Khufu's day their political
influence was being felt. In fact, their ultimate ascendancy may have been due to the public revolt against the
selfish and tyrannical policy of the pyramid−building kings.
We enjoy a privilege not shared by Greeks or Romans, who heard the Egyptian traditions regarding the
masterful monarch. Petrie discovered an ivory statue of Khufu, which is a minute and beautiful piece of
work. The features occupy only a quarter of an inch, and are yet animate with life and expression. Khufu's
face suggests that of the Duke of Wellington. The nose is large and curved like an eagle's beak; the eyes have
a hard and piercing look; the cheek bones are high, the cheeks drawn down to knotted jaws; the chin is firmly
cut and the hard mouth has an uncompromising pout; the brows are lowering. The face is that of a thinker and
man of actionan idealist and an iron−willed ruler of men
whose frown
And wrinkled lip and sneer of cold command
Tell that the sculptor well those passions read
Which still survive
stamped on the statuette of the greatest of the pyramid builders. There is withal an air of self−consciousness,
and we seem to hear, "My name is Khufu"
. . . King of Kings;
Look on my works, ye mighty, and despair.
Petrie, the great Egyptian archæologist, calculates that Khufu's vast pyramid is composed of some 2,003,000
blocks of limestone averaging about 2½ tons each. It occupies an area of 13 acres. Each side of the square
base originally measured 768 feet, but the removal of the coating which left the sides smooth caused a
shrinkage of about 18 feet. The height is now roughly 450 feet, 30 ft. less than when it was completed.
This pyramid is the greatest pile of masonry ever erected by man. Not only is it a monument to a mighty ruler
and his great architects and builders, but also to the stone workers of Memphis. Many of the great stones have
been cut and dressed with amazing skill and accuracy, and so closely are they placed together that the seams
have to be marked with charcoal to be traced in a photograph. Blocks of limestone weighing tons are finished
with almost microscopic accuracy, "equal", says Petrie, "to optician's work of the present day".
Volumes have been written to advance theories regarding the purpose of this and other pyramids. The
orientation theory has especially been keenly debated. But it no longer obtains among prominent
Egyptologists. A pyramid has no astronomical significance whatsoever; the Egyptians were not star
worshippers. It is simply a vast burial cairn, and an architectural development of the mastaba, which had been
growing higher and higher until Zoser's architect conceived the idea of superimposing one upon the other
until an effect was obtained which satisfied his sense of proportion. Geometricians decided its final shape
rather than theologians.
There are several chambers in the interior of Khufu's pyramid, whose mummy reposed in a granite
sarcophagus in the largest, which is 19 feet high, 34½ feet in length, and 17 feet in breadth. The entrance is
from the north.Herodotus was informed by the Egyptian priests that 100,000 workers were employed, and
were relieved every three months. The limestone was quarried on the eastern side of the Nile, below Cairo,
and drifted on rafts across the river. The low ground was flooded, so that the high ground was made an island.
We are informed that ten years were spent in constructing a causeway up which the blocks were hauled. A
considerable time was also spent in preparing the rocky foundations. The pyramid itself was the work of
twenty years.
When the base was completed, the same writer explains, the stones were raised by the aid of "machines"
made of "short pieces of wood". Models have been found in tombs of wooden "cradles"flat on the top and
rounded off so that they could be rockedon which boulders were evidently poised and then slewed into
position by haulage and leverage. The "cradles" were raised by wedges. When the block was lifted high enough, it could be tilted and made to slide down skids into position. Herodotus says that according to one
account the stones were elevated by the numerous "machines" from step to step, and to another they were
lifted into position by one great contrivance. This process was continued until the summit was reached. Then
a granite casing was constructed downward to the base, and it was covered over with hieroglyphics which
recorded the various sums of money expended for food supplied to the workers. "Cheops (Khufu) exhausted
his wealth", adds Herodotus.
The royal exchequer does not appear to have been depleted, because Khufu also erected three smaller
pyramids for members of his family, and his successor afterwards undertook the construction of a vast tomb
also.
Apart from his pyramid work we know little ornothing regarding the events of Khufu's reign. Sneferu's
military activities had secured peace on the frontiers, and neither dusky Nubian nor bearded Asiatic dared
enter the land to plunder or despoil. That the administration was firm and perfectly organized under the
iron−willed monarch may be taken for granted.
But a great change was impending which could not be controlled by the will of a single man. Prolonged
peace had promoted culture, and the minds of men were centred on the great problems of life and death.
Among the educated classes a religious revolution was imminent. Apparently Khufu was raised to power on
an early wave of insurrection. It was a period of transition. The downfall of the Ptah cult as a supreme
political force was in progress, and the rival cult of Ra, at Heliopolis, was coming into prominence. Already
in Sneferu's reign a sun worshipper, one Ra−hotep, occupied the influential position of Superintendent of the
South. It remained for the priests of the sun to secure converts among the members of the royal family, so as
to obtain political and religious ascendancy, and it can be understood that those who were educated at their
temple college were likely to embrace their beliefs. If they failed in that direction, the combined influence of
priests and nobles was sufficient to threaten the stability of the throne. A strong ruler might delay, but he
could not thwart, the progress of the new movement.
The king's name, as we have stated, was Khnûmû Khufu, which means: "I am guarded by the god Khnûmû".
That "modeller" of the universe may have closely resembled Ptah, but the doctrines of the two sects
developed separately, being subjected to different racial influences. Khnûmû was ultimately merged with the
sun god, and his ram became "the living soul of Ra". Khnûmû wasregarded at Heliopolis as an incarnation of
Osiris, whose close association with agricultural rites perpetuated his worship among the great mass of the
people. In the theological system of the sun cult, Osiris became a member of the Ra family, and succeeded to
the throne of the "first king" who ruled over Egypt. But Ptah, significantly enough, was never included
among the sun god's companions, and the idea that he created Ra was confined to Memphis, and evolved at a
later date. The rivalry between the two powerful cults must have been bitter and pronounced.
If Ptolemaic tradition is to be relied upon, Khufu constructed a temple to the goddess Hathor, who, as we
have seen, was merged with the frog goddess Hekt, the spouse of Khnûmû. Indeed Hekt came to be regarded
as a form of Hathor. Sati, Khnûmû's other spouse, was also a sky and cow goddess, so that she links with Nut,
and with Hathor, who displaced Nut.
King Khufu's son and successor must have come under the influence of the Ra cult, for his name, Khaf−ra,
signifies "Ra is my glory" or "My brightness is Ra". The sun cult had received their first great concession
from the royal house. But not until the following Dynasty did the priests of Heliopolis obtain supreme power,
and compel the Pharaoh to call himself "son of the sun", a title which ever afterwards remained in use. Sun
worship then became the official religion of Egyptgradually coloured every other cult. When the Osirian
religion was revived, under the Libyan monarchs, the old deified king, who was an incarnation of the corn
god, was also identified with the sun.
King Khafra did not, it would appear, satisfy the ambitions of the Ra worshippers, who desired more than
formal recognition. A legend which survives only in fragmentary form relates that "the gods turned away
from Khufu and his house". The powerful cult became impatient, and "hope deferred" made them rebels. A
political revolution was fostered, and Khufu's Dynasty was doomed.
Khafra, the Chephren of Herodotus, who says Khufu was his brother, erected the second great pyramid,
which is only about 30 feet lower than the other. The remains of his temple still survive. It is built of granite,
and although the workmanship is less exact, as if the work were more hastily performed than in Khufu's day,
the architecture is austerely sublime. Immense square pillars support massive blocks; there are great open
spaces, and one is impressed by the simplicity and grandeur of the scheme.
Seven statues of Khafra were discovered by Mariette, so that his "Ka" was well provided for. The great
diorite statue preserved in the Cairo museum is one of the enduring triumphs of Egyptian art. The conception
is at once grand and imposing. His Majesty is seated on the throne, but he wears the wig of the great ruling
judge. At the back of his head is the figure of the protecting Horus hawk. His face is calmer than
Khufu'sresolution is combined with dignity and patience. He seems to be imbued with the spirit of Old
Kingdom greatness.
Although cut from so hard a material as diorite, there is much muscular detail in the figure, which is that of a
strong and vigorous man. His throne is straight−backed, but the stately floral design of the sides, and the
lions' heads and fore paws in front are in keeping with the naked majesty of the whole statue, which was
originally covered with a soft material.
Again the reign is a blank. The priests informedHerodotus that Khafra's conduct was similar to that of Khufu.
"The Egyptians had to endure every species of oppression and calamity, and so greatly do they hate the
memories of the two monarchs that they are unwilling to mention their names. Instead they called their
pyramids by the name of the shepherd Philitis, who grazed his cattle near them."
The great Sphinx was long associated with Khafra, whose name was carved upon it during the Eighteenth
Dynasty, but it is believed to be of much later date. It is fashioned out of the rock, and is over 60 feet in
height. The body is a lion's, and the face was a portrait of a Pharaoh, but it has been so much disfigured by
Mohammedans that it cannot be identified with certainty. Nor is there complete agreement as to the
significance of the Sphinx. Centuries after its construction the Egyptians regarded it as a figure of the sun
god, but more probably it was simply a symbol of royal power and greatness.
There were kindlier memories of Menkaura, the Mycernius of Herodotus, who said that this king was a son of
Khufu. He erected the third great pyramid, which is but 218 feet high, and three small ones for his family. He
was reputed, however, to have eased the burden of the Egyptians, and especially to have allowed the temples
to be reopened, so that the people might offer sacrifices to the gods. As a just monarch he excelled all his
predecessors, and his memory was long revered. Not only did he deliver equitable judgments, but was ever
ready to hear appeals when complaints were made against officials, and willing to remove and redress
wrongs. His statue shows us a less handsome man than either Khufu or Khafra, and the expression of the face
accords with his traditional character. Indeed, it is not only unaffected, but melancholy.A story was told to
Herodotus that the king was greatly stricken by the death of his daughter. He had her body enclosed in a
heifer made of wood, which was covered over with gold. It was not buried, but placed in a palace hall at Sais.
Incense was burned before it daily, and at night it was illuminated. The heifer reclined on its knees. A purple
robe covered the body, and between the gilded horns blazed a great golden star. Once a year, in accordance
with the request of the dying princess, the image was carried outside so that she might behold the sun. The
occasion was an Osirian festival, and the heifer, it is believed, represented Isis.
We know definitely that a daughter of Menkaura was given in marriage to Ptah−shepses, a high official, who became the priest of three obelisks. The appointment is full of significance, because these obelisks were
erected to Ra. Sun worship was evidently gaining ground.
The mummy of the king was enclosed in a great sarcophagus of basalt, but was destroyed with the others.
Mention is also made of a Fourth−Dynasty monarch named Radadef, but he cannot be placed with certainty.
Khufu's line flourished for about a century and a half, and then was overthrown. A new family of kings, who
were definitely Ra worshippers, sat on the throne of United Egypt. In the folk tales which follow are
interesting glimpses of the life and beliefs of the times.

In the StreetsThe Temple of PtahGlimpses of LifeA DisputeOld Age is honouredA Dignified
NoblemanHighborn LadiesRacial TypesBearers of Temple OfferingsIn the SlumsArtisans at
WorkThe MarketplaceFresh Fish on SaleOn the QuaysSailors from CretePharaoh's SoldiersArrest of
the Tax CollectorsA Significant Folk TaleThe Wronged PeasantHis Appeal to the judgeEloquent
SpeechesHonoured by His Majesty.
As we gaze upon the scenes depicted in tombs, read the inscriptions, and piece together fragments of papyri
containing old legends, we are afforded vivid glimpses of life in the Old Kingdom. The great city of
Memphis is conjured up before us; its gates lie open, and armed guards permit us to enter. We walk through
the crowded streets, pausing now and again to gaze upon the people as they come and go, or, perchance, we
loiter in front of a yard or workshop, watching the busy artisans plying their trades.
We pass through a main thoroughfare. Most of the houses are built of brick; the dwellings of the poor are of
wattles daubed with clay. . . . Now we enter a spacious square, in the centre of which towers a sublime statue
of the Pharaoh. The sun is hot, although it is yet early forenoon, and we seek the shadow of that vast
dominating building round which the city has grown up. It is the stone temple of the god Ptah, grandly severe
in outline and fronted by two noble pylons of massiveproportions. We peer through the gateway as we pass.
A procession of priests is crossing an inner court on which lie the broad shadows of great square pillars set
widely apart, and supporting immense blocks of limestone. One is impressed by the air of mystery and
solemnity which pervades the temple interior.
We can seat ourselves here on the stone bench and watch the crowds pouring from the streets. Memphis is a
wonderfully quiet city. You hear a constant hum of voices; it murmurs like a great beehive. But there is no
clatter of traffic, for the streets are devoid of vehicles, and horses are as yet unknown in the land of Egypt.
Peasants from the country are leading their asses laden with salt, corded bales, rushes for basket makers,
bundles of papyrus stalks, and hard stones. Great burdens are carried on the shoulders of labourers; even boys stagger under heavy loads.
Everyone is scantily clad. Men of the lower classes wear only a loincloth, while those of higher social rank
have short kilts of linen which are strapped round their waists with leather belts. Women of all ranks are
gowned to the ankles, and ladies have skirts so narrow that they walk with short steps, but yet not
ungracefully.
Half−naked the men may be, yet it is not difficult to distinguish the various classes. There is no mistaking the
labourer, even although his burden has been delivered, or the tradesman, for he carries his tools. Here is a
busy merchant knitting his brows, and there a bland−faced scribe with dry, pouting lips and peering eyes set
in cobwebs of wrinkles. A few merry students are walking leisurely towards the temple with papyrus rolls
under their arms.
A loud clamour of voices in dispute has broken out at a street corner. Two carriers have collided, and theone
who has fallen is an Egyptian; the other is a tall negro. The smaller man leaps to his feet. Insult has been
added to injury, for the alien is but. a slave, and, fuming with anger, he throws himself on the black man, who
is hampered by his load, and belabours him with his fists. A crowd collects, and its sympathy is evidently
with the Egyptian. But suddenly a few city guards rush forward; they smite the combatants with their staves,
force them apart, and cause them to hasten away. The crowd disperses speedily, and order is again restored.
Note the studied politeness of the greater number of pedestrians. Age is highly honoured, young men stand
aside to allow their seniors to pass; three lads have risen from a shaded seat near to us to make room for an
old man who is frail and breathless and desires to rest a little ere he enters the temple.
Now the moving crowd breaks apart, for somebody of importance is coming up the street. He is a nobleman
and a royal official of high rank. In. the Court he is "Keeper of the Royal Robes" and "Sandal−bearer to the
Pharaoh". He is also one of those great judges who sit in the Hall of justice. In his youth he was a college
friend of the monarch's, and is now privileged at Court ceremonies to kiss the royal toe instead of the dust on
which it trod. He owns a large estate, and has much wealth and influence. As he walks past, the pedestrians
salute him respectfully with uplifted arms. He makes no response; he appears to be oblivious to their
presence. Mark his imperious air and lordly gait. . . . His kilt is finely embroidered; the upper part of his body
is bare; on his head he wears a great stiff wig which falls down behind over his shoulders, protecting his neck
from the hot sun. He is square−chested and muscular; he walks erect, with tilted chin. His face is drawn and
severe; hehas firmly set, drooping lips, and his eyes are stern and proud. He is obviously a man accustomed
to command and to be obeyed. . . . A servant shuffles after him carrying his sandals and water bottle.
He has just acknowledged with a curt bow the profound obeisance of that rich merchant. But now he meets
an equal in the middle of the squareImhotep, Chief Architect to the King. Ere they speak they both bow
gravely, bending their backs, with hands reaching to their knees. Then they converse for a few moments,
salute one another again, and turn gravely away.
Some high−born ladies have gathered in the shade. Two carry bunches of lotus flowers, and the others smell
them with appreciation. Their faces are refined and vivacious, and one is "black but comely", for she is a
Nubian by birth. How they chatter as they flicker their broad fans! Their white gowns are elaborately
embroidered in colours, and they all wear sandals, for the builders have left much grit in the streets. Their
wigs are drawn low on their foreheads, round which they are clasped by graven bands of silver and gold.
Gems sparkle in their necklaces, which are of elaborate design, and one or two wear their wigs set well back
to display heavy car−rings, which are becoming fashionable. A handsome girl is wearing a broad gold armlet
which came from Crete. The others examine it with interest, and when they break into laughter, displaying
gleaming white teeth, the girl looks sideways in confusion, for they tease her about her far−travelled lover
who gifted her that rare ornament. Now they saunter in pairs across the square; they are going down to the quays to sail on the Nile.
There is a variety of racial types about us. The southern Egyptians are almost black, those from the centre of
the kingdom are brown, and the Delta peoplehave yellow skins. That bearded man who has just gone past is a
Semite from Arabia; and here comes a soft−featured Syrian, walking with an oblique−eyed Sumerian from
Babylonia. These tall negroes are Nubian mercenaries, who were taken captive in a frontier war. Of late the
stone builders have been purchasing them in large numbers, for they have great muscular strength and make
excellent labourers.
There is no mistaking the awkward, wide−eyed peasant who came to the market with salt, and is now
surveying the great city of wonderful buildings and endless streets.
That red−haired man who is hurrying past is an Amorite; he came south to barter rugs for corn. He looks
behind with an ugly scowl−a carrier has shouted something after him, because an Egyptian peasant dislikes a
man who reminds him of red−haired Set, the slayer of Osiris.
Now here comes a handsome stranger who is exciting much interest. Men and women turn round to look after
him. Children regard him with wonder. Not only is he taller than the majority of Memphites, but he is
distinguished by his lightly coloured hair and his strange blue eyes. Some would fain know if his cheeks are a
natural red or smeared with face paint. No one doubts whence he came. He is one of the fair Libyans, and he
is evidently a man of some importance, for even royal officials acknowledge his salutations.
Ere we turn away, let us watch that little procession of young peasants walking past. They are bearers of
offerings, and are going to the temple. One lad has shouldered a live calf, another brings a bundle of papyrus
stalks, and a third has a basket of flour upon his head. The girls carry bunches of flowers, doves in pairs, and
tame pelicans. One or two calves are led by boys. Littlenotice is taken of the peasants. Processions of similar
character are seen daily in Memphis.
We had better cross over quickly, for here comes a great herd of unwilling goats driven by shouting peasants
who wield their staves rather freely, nor care whether they miss a goat and strike a pedestrian. The city guards
are watching them with interest, for they know their men.
Now turn down this narrow twisting street. Houses are lower here, and some are built with brick, but most of
them are constructed of clay−plastered wickerwork. Why not enter this little dwelling? The door lies open,
and there is nobody within. Man and wife labour in a potter's yard. The furniture consists of one or two tough
stools, a low bed over which hangs a gnat−protecting net, and here and there are a few jars and pots of coarse
pottery. Within the window lattice a bunch of lotus leaves is drying in the sun; a cut of salted fish hangs on
the wall; a flint knife lies on the floor. The house is used mainly as a sleeping apartment, and if there is a
baby it is near the mother in the potter's yard.
Outside, a few children are playing a curious game, which appears to be an imitation of a temple ceremony.
Wives of artisans sit gossiping in the shade of a brick building; some are sewing, and others are cutting
vegetables which they have brought from the market. Two girls go past with water pots on their heads.
We have glimpses, as they walk on, of long narrow lanes of small and low−roofed houses. There is evidently
much congestion in the poorer quarters of the city. Look through that open door and you will see an
industrious family. A widow and her three daughters are spinning and weaving fine linen, which might well
be mistaken for silk.Here is a brickyard. Labourers are mixing the clay; others shape the bricks with a binding
of straw and lay them out to dry. Carriers come for those which are ready, and take heavy loads in two slings
suspended from poles which they lift upon their shoulders. An overseer hastens them on, for the builders
cannot be kept waiting Farther on is a stoneworker's yard. Under an awning squat several skilled artisans who are engaged making
vessels of alabaster and porphyry. The process is slow and arduous. One has shaped and polished a handsome
jar with fluted lip and narrow neck, and is hollowing it out with a copper−tipped drill which is fed with
ground emery. He pauses for a moment to wipe the perspiration from his forehead. and remarks to a fellow:
"This is certainly a handsome vessel." The other looks up and surveys it critically. "It is your masterpiece," he
remarks, with a smile, and then goes on drilling a large shallow milk bowl.
Two men are cutting a block of porphyry with a copper saw, while an apprentice supplies the emery, and
relieves now one and then the other. See how skilfully those labourers are levering a granite boulder into
position; it is mounted on a rounded wooden cradle, and slewed this way and that. A lad is gathering wedges
with which to raise it up. One or two naked boys, squatted in a shady corner, are watching the proceedings
with interest. They are going to saw stone too, when they grow strong.
We enter another street and our ears are assailed by the clamour of metal workers. It is a noisy quarter. Bang,
bang, go the hammers on a large sheet of copper. One would be deafened if he stayed here long. Passersby
twitch their eyes and foreheads and hurry on. Lookat these naked men kneeling round the blazing furnace,
puffing their cheeks and blowing through long pipes. No Egyptian inventor has yet contrived a mechanical
bellows. Now the glowing metal is pulled from the furnace, and a dozen exhausted workers rise, with their
blowpipes in their hands, coughing and rubbing their eyes, to wait until the hammermen require them again.
Here are goldsmiths at work. A man is weighing precious metal in a balance, and a scribe sits in front of him
making careful records on a sheet of papyrus. Near by are men with clever fingers and keen eyes, who
engrave and pierce little pieces of gold and silver, shape ear−rings and necklaces, and hammer out sheets of
gold which are to be inscribed with hieroglyphics. An overseer moves to and fro from bench to bench and
artisan to artisan, surveying everything that is being done with critical eyes.
So we pass from street to street, here watching potters at work, there sculptors and carvers of wood and ivory,
and anon the sandal makers and those deft leather cutters who provide gentlemen with slitted network to
suspend on the back of their kilts for sitting upon.
Now we reach the principal marketplace. The scene is animated and intensely human. Merchants are squatted
beside their stalls, some drowsing in the heat while they await purchasers, and others gesticulating excitedly
at bargain making. There is a good deal of wrangling, and voices are often raised in dispute, while friends
gather in knots and chatter and laugh or engage in lively argument. Some make purchases with ring money,
but the majority engage in barter. Here a merchant has displayed a fine collection of vases and bowls. A lady
surveys his wares critically and shakes her head over the prices he demands; but he waits patiently, for he
knowsshe is tempted to purchase and notes that she always returns to a particular porphyry jar of exquisite
design.
A woman of the working class leans over a basket of fish, and doubts if they are quite fresh. The vendor lifts
one, presses it with his fingers, and smiles to her. "Caught this morning," he says. She decides to have it for
her husband's dinner, and gives in exchange a piece of red pottery. Another woman barters a small carved
box for ointment and perfume, while a man gives a fan for a bundle of onions.
A steward from a nobleman's house passes from stall to stall, accompanied by two servants, making
numerous purchases, because several guests of note are coming to the evening meal. He is welcomed,
although a hard bargainer, for he pays with money.
We catch, as we turn away, a soothing glimpse of the broad blue river, and turn towards it, for the streets are
dusty and hot, and we know the air is cooler beside the quays. We cross an open space in which are piled up
the cargoes of unloaded boats. Here come half a dozen foreign sailors who are going sightseeing. They also intend to make private purchases for their friends at home. You can tell by their pants and characteristic
"wasp waists" that they are Cretans. They are short of stature and slim and have sharp features like the Delta
coast dwellers, and their movements are active. Their dark hair is pleated in three long coils which fall over
their shoulders, and they affect small coloured turbans. They all wear armlets, which are greatly favoured in
the distant island kingdom.
A company of Pharaoh's soldiers are marching towards the great limestone fortress. They are naked, save for
their loincloths, and about half of them are archers; the others are armed with long spears and carry wooden
shields, square at the bottom and arching to a point at the top. They go past with a fine swing, although they
have been drilling all forenoon on an open space two miles southward of the city.
Yonder are boatbuilders at work. The Cretan traders have brought them a fresh supply of seasoned timber as
well as a raft of drifted logs from Lebanon. Wood is scarce and dear in Egypt, and watchmen are on duty in
the yard day and night.
Three commodious river boats are being constructed. The work is well advanced, for the carpenters are fitting
in the benches, which are being pierced and prepared for jointing on trestles by men who sit astride them. The
artisans are skilled and active, and the overseers who direct operations are easily recognized; they carry long
staffs in their right hands and constantly urge on the men.
But what is happening yonder in front of the Government buildings? A large crowd has assembled, and the
jeers and roars of laughter indicate that something of amusing character is in progress. We press forward to
find that the city guards have made several arrests, and are hauling their protesting prisoners through the
doorway. The spectators are delighted to see "the tables turned", for these are their oppressorsthe tax
collectorswho are being taken before the Pharaoh's accountants so that their accounts may be audited. There
have been several complaints of late of extortionate dealings and dishonest transactions. In a large hall within
we see the stern auditors kneeling at their low desks, on which are piled the official records. Scribes record
the proceedings. Each arrested man crouches on his knees, and is held firmly by a guard while he is sharply
questioned and his accounts are checked. All his privatepapers have been seized; he must explain every entry
and prove that he is a man above suspicion. It is a rough−and−ready, but effective, manner of doing business.
Punishments for dishonesty or oppression are sharp and peremptory.
The Pharaoh is the protector of all his subjects great and small. A poor man may suffer a great wrong and
find himself unable to have it righted even in the Hall of justice; but if the great monarch is appealed to, he
will prove to be no respecter of persons, and visit the wrongdoer with punishment of great severity.
A tale has come down the ages which was often related in the dwellings of poor and great alike, to show how
Pharaoh might espouse the cause of the humblest man in the kingdom. Scribes recorded it on papyri, and
fragments of these still survive.
Once upon a time a peasant had his dwelling in the Fayum, and it was his custom to load his ass with nitre
and reeds, salt and stones, and seeds and bundles of wood, and drive it to a town in the south, where in the
marketplace he exchanged what he had brought for other things that he and his family required. He began to
be prosperous.
One day, when it was nigh to harvesttime, he journeyed townwards and reached the estate of a great royal
official named Meritensa. As he passed through it he came to the farm of Hamti, a feudal tenant. The farmer
saw him approach, and to himself he said: "May the god permit me to rob the peasant of his ass and its
burden. I have need of salt."
The path along the river bank was exceedingly narrow, for Hamti had sowed much land. Between his corn and the water there was scarcely the breadth of a man's body.Said the farmer to one of his servants: "Bring
me a rug from within." The man ran to Hamti's house and came back with a rug, which was spread out upon
the path, and it reached from the corn to the river edge.
The peasant drove his ass along the narrow way, past the corn, and when he drew nigh, the farmer called to
him, saying: "Observe where you are going; do not soil my rug."
"I will do according to your will," remarked the peasant, "and avoid troubling you."
So he smote his ass and turned it inland to pass round the field. But the farmer would not be satisfied with
that even. He shouted with an angry voice, saying: "Would you dare to trample upon my corn? There is no
path that way."
"What else can I do?" remonstrated the peasant; "you prevent me from using the path by laying a rug upon it."
As he spoke his ass began to eat the grain, and the farmer seized it and said: "I will take this animal in
payment for the damage it has done."
The peasant cried indignantly: "What? first you close the path against me, and now you seize my ass because
it has taken a few ears of barley. Dare not to wrong me on this estate; it belongs to the just Meritensa, the
great judge, who is a terror to all evildoers in the kingdom. Well you know that I speak truly. Do not imagine
that you can oppress me on the land of such a good and high nobleman."
But the farmer laughed. "Heard you not," he asked, "the maxim which says: 'A peasant is esteemed only by
himself?' Know now, too, that I am even Meritensa, the judge, of whom you have spoken. I will deal with
you here and now."Having spoken thus, the farmer seized a scourge and lashed the peasant fiercely, seeking
to drive him away. But the wronged man refused to depart. His body ached with many wounds. He waited
about all day, but neither by threat nor tearful appeal could he prevail upon the farmer to give him back his
ass and the burden it carried.
Then the peasant hastened towards the dwelling of Meritensa. He waited the coming forth of that great lord,
sitting patiently beside the wall gate. Hours went past, and at length he saw Meritensa walking out to step
into a boat at the river side.
"Hail to thee, my lord!" he called. "Bid one of your servants to hear the tale of my wrong."
As the man desired, so did the nobleman do. He bade a scribe to converse with the peasant, who related how
he had been wronged by Hamti.
So it happened that, when sitting in the Hall of justice next morning, Meritensa repeated the accusations
which the peasant had made against the farmer. The other judges heard, and then said:
"It is our rule here that these peasants should bring witnesses. We know their ways. If it is proved that the
farmer stole some nitre and salt, he can be ordered to make payment, or else he can be scourged. But we must
first hear evidence to confirm what is said by this peasant fellow."
Meritensa made no reply. He was indignant at the other judges, and scorned to discuss the matter with them
any further. He decided to advise the wronged man what to do.
But the peasant could not find witnesses, and again he waited the coming forth of the good judge. Then he
praised him with a loud voice, saying: "Thou artmighty among the mighty ones and the good friend of poor men. May fair winds waft thee on the lake of truth; may no wave smite thee or any terror come nigh. Thou art
a father to the fatherless, and a husband to the widow and a brother to the girl in need. I laud thy name, for
thou dost give excellent counsel without desire of reward. Thou art the enemy of the wrongdoer and the lover
of justice. My cry thou didst hear, and thou hast permitted me to speak. Thou art esteemed by those who are
worthy. Now show me mercy and undo my wrong; consider my prayer, enquire regarding me, and thou wilt
find that I have been plundered."
Meritensa was on his way to the palace, and he repeated unto Pharaoh what the peasant had said, and related
how he had been robbed by the farmer.
His Majesty said: "This man hath great eloquence. See that his wrong is not righted for a little time yet, and
arrange that all his fine speeches are recorded by your scribes. I should like to hear them word by word.
Meantime see that his wife and his children do not want for food."
The peasant was given a supply of bread each day, and Meritensa arranged that his wife and children should
also be supplied with food in abundance.
Daily did the wronged man wait the coming forth of the noble, whom he addressed with great eloquence and
poetic fervour. The scribes recorded all the words of his mouth. But Meritensa pretended not to heed him, and
he even had him beaten.
Nine times did the peasant make appeal to the judge, and at length two servants went and spoke to the man,
who, when he saw them approach, feared that he was about to be scourged once again. But the words which
they spake for their lord were:"You have no cause to be afraid because you addressed the judge these many
times. The Pharaoh has read your speeches and has praised them, and you will be rewarded."
Meritensa then caused his scribes to take down the evidence of the peasant regarding the robbery of his ass
and its burden of nitre and salt, and he laid the document before His Majesty.
Pharaoh said: "I cannot attend to this matter. Consider it yourself and see that justice is done."
Meritensa then dispatched his officers to the farm, and he caused Hamti's house and all his goods to be
confiscated and given unto the peasant.
All that was done was confirmed and approved by the Pharaoh, who commanded that the eloquent peasant
should be brought to the palace. His Majesty took delight in his speeches and honoured him greatly, for he
caused rich dainties from the royal table to be sent unto the man and his family.

Memphite ReligionThe Cult of PtahEthical BeliefsPharaoh worshipped as a God"Husband of his
Mother"Magical Incantations"Mesmerizing the Gods"The Earliest MastabasEndowment of Tomb
ChapelsThe Servants of the DeadScenes of Everyday LifeZoser's Two TombsThe First PyramidAn
Architect who became a GodInspiration of Egyptian ReligionHow it promoted CivilizationMythology of
the Stone BuildersPtah and KhnûmûThe Frog GoddessA Prototype of IsisA Negroid DeityKhnûmû
associated with Khufu (Cheops).
WHEN Old Memphis became the leading city of United Egypt the religious beliefs of the mingled peoples
were in process of fusion and development. Commerce was flourishing, and ideas were being exchanged as
freely as commodities. In the growing towns men of many creeds and different nationalities were brought
into close personal contact, and thought was stimulated by the constant clash of opinions. It was an age of
change and marked progress. Knowledge was being rapidly accumulated and more widely diffused. Society
had become highly organized, and archaic tribal beliefs could no longer be given practical application under
the new conditions that obtained throughout the land. A new religion became a necessity−at any rate existing
beliefs had to be unified and systematized in the interests of peace and order, especially in a city like
Memphis with its large and cosmopolitan population.
The cult which began to mummify the dead had evidently formulated a creed which appealed to the
intellectualclasses. Beliefs regarding the after−life took definite shape. The "land of shades" was organized
like the land of Egypt. Ideas of right living and good government prevailed, and the growth of ethical thought
was reflected in the conception of a Judge of the Dead who justified or condemned men after consideration of
their actions during life. The attributes of the principal gods were defined; their powers and their places were
adjusted; they were grouped in triads and families; and from the mass of divergent beliefs was evolving a
complex mythology which was intended not only to instruct but to unite the rival beliefs prevailing in a
community.
Egyptian religion as a whole, however, was never completely systematized at this or any subsequent period.
Each locality had its own theological system. The old tribal gods remained supreme in their nomes, and when
they were grouped with others; the influence at work was more political than intellectual in character. The
growth of culture did not permeate all classes of society, and the common people, especially in rural districts,
clung to the folk beliefs and practices of their ancestors. A provincial nobleman, supported by the priests,
secured the loyalty of his followers therefore by upholding the prestige of their ancient god, who could be
linked, if needs be, with the deity of another tribe with whom a union had been effected. If the doctrines of a
rival creed influenced the beliefs of the people of a particular district the attributes of the rival god were then
attached to their own. When Ptah, for instance, ceased to make intellectual appeal as a creation artificer he
was exalted above Ra and the other gods, whom he was supposed to have called into existence by uttering
magical words.
Ptah, as we have seen, was linked with Osiris. The combined deity was at once the god of the industrial
andagricultural classes, and the Judge of the Dead. He was the chief deity of the new religion which
controlled the everyday life of the people. He was the Revealer who made city life possible by promoting law
and order as a religious necessity, and by instructing the people how to live honourably and well. He ordained
the fate of all men; he rewarded the virtuous and punished the sinners. Masters were required to deal
humanely with their servants, and servants to perform their duties with diligence and obedience. Children
were counselled to honour their parents lest they might complain to the god and he should hear them.
The supremacy of Ptah was not yet seriously threatened by the sun god Ra, whose cult was gathering strength
at Heliopolis. For a full century the ascendancy of the Memphite cult was complete and unassailable. The
influence of the north was thus predominant. The Horite religion, which was a form of sun worship, had been
displaced; it was overshadowed by the Ptah Osiris creed. Apparently the people of Lower Egypt had achieved
an intellectual conquest of their conquerors. The Osirian Paradise was a duplicate of the Delta region, and the
new creed was strongly influenced by Osirian beliefs which had prevailed before Mena's day.
Although great rivalry existed between the various cults throughout the land, the people were united in
reverencing the Pharaoh. He was exalted as a god; indeed he was regarded as an incarnation of the ruling
deity. Until the Fourth Dynasty the monarch was the living Osiris; then he became the earthly manifestation
of Ra, the sun god. The people believed that a deity must needs take human form to associate with mankind.
His Ka, therefore, entered the king's body as the king's Ka entered his statue. In temple scenes we find thepeople engaged in worshipping Pharaoh; in fact, the Pharaoh might worship himselfhe made offerings to
his Ka, which was the Ka of a god.
The idea of the divinity of kings was, no doubt, a survival of ancestor worship. Families worshipped the spirit
of their dead sire, and tribes that of their departed leader. But the Pharaoh was not like other men, who
became divine after death; he was divine from birth. His father had been the ruling god and his mother the
god's wife. On the walls of temples elaborate scenes were carved to remind the people of the divine origin of
their ruler. At the marriage ceremony the king impersonated the god, and he was accompanied by his divine
attendants. As Ptah Tanen he wore "the high feathers" and two ram's horns, and carried the holy symbols; as
Osiris he appeared with crook and flail.; as Ra he was crowned with the sun disk. The queen was thus
married to the god within his temple. In sculptured scenes depicting royal births we see goddesses in
attendance as midwives, nurses, and foster mothers. This close association with deities was supposed to
continue throughout the Pharaoh's life; he was frequently shown in company of gods and goddesses.
When the king died, the spirit of the god passed to his successor. The son, therefore, according to Egyptian
reasoning, became his own father, and, in the theological Sense, "husband of his mother". Horus, who was
born after Osiris was slain, was "the purified image of his sire". In one of the religious chants the same idea is
given expression when it is declared that "the god Seb was before his mother". The new Pharaoh, on
ascending the throne, became doubly divine, because both ideas regarding the divinity of kings were
perpetuated at the same time.The worship of a particular Pharaoh did not cease when he died. Like other
departed souls he required the service of the living. His priests must assist him to reach the Osirian Paradise
of Aalu, or the sun bark of Ra. Even Ra had to be assisted to pass through the perilous hour−divisions of the
night. Indeed all the good forces of Nature had to be continually prompted by men who desired to be
benefited by them; similarly the evil forces had to be thwarted by the performance of magical ceremonies and
the repetition of' magical formulæ. Egyptian religion was based upon belief in magic.
Pharaoh's body was therefore mummified, so that his soul might continue to exist and be able to return to
reanimate the bandaged form. Food offerings were given regularly for the sustenance of the Ka. Magical
ceremonies, which were religious ceremonies, were performed to cause the gods to act and to speak as was
desiredto imitate those who impersonated them upon earth. The priests were supposed, as it were, to
mesmerize the gods when they went through their elaborate ceremonies of compulsion and their ceremonies
of riddance.
It was considered necessary to afford secure protection for the Pharaoh's mummy; his enemies might seek to
dismember it with purpose to terminate the life of the soul. Substantial tombs were therefore erected, and the
old brick and wood erections which were constructed for the kings at Abydos went out of fashion.
A tomb chamber was hewed out of solid rock, and over it was built an oblong platform structure of limestone
called a mastaba. The mummy was lowered down the shaft. which was afterwards filled up with sand and
gravel and closed with masonry. This low and flat−roofedbuilding was large enough to accommodate at least
a hundred bodies) but it was made solid throughout with the exception of the secret shaft. Robbers would
have to wreck it completely before the hiding place of the body could be discovered. On the east side there
was a false door through which the Ka could pass when it came from) or departed towards, the western land
of shades. In time a little chapel was provided, and the false door was placed at the end of it. This apartment
was used for the performance of the ceremonies associated with the worship of the dead; mourners came with
offerings, and met in presence of the invisible Ka.
The statue was concealed in an inner chamber, which was built up, but occasionally narrow apertures were
constructed through which food and drink were given to the Ka. But only to kings and rich men could this
service be rendered for a prolonged period, so the practice ultimately evolved of providing the dead with
models of offerings which by a magical process gave sustenance to the hungry spirit.
Mortuary chapels were endowed as early as the First Dynasty. Priests were regularly engaged in worshipping
dead kings and princes who had made provision in their wills for the necessary expenses. The son of one
monarch in the Fourth Dynasty devoted the revenues of a dozen towns to maintain the priesthood attached to
his tomb. This custom created grave financial problems.
In a few generations the whole land might be mortgaged to maintain mortuary chapels, with the result that a
revolution involving a change of dynasty became an economic necessity.
Hearken! ye kings, while horror stalks the land,
Lo! your poor people fall a ready prey
Made weak by your oppression, even in death
Burdened and bruised and terrorized; their lands
Tax ridden for these temples ye endowed,
That fawning priests might meek obeisance make
And render ceaseless homage to your shades.
The walls of the chapel were either sculptured in low relief or painted with scenes of daily life, and from
these we gather much of what we know regarding the manners and customs of the ancient people. But such
works of art were not intended merely to be decorative or to perpetuate the fame of the dead. It was desired
that those scenes should be duplicated in Paradise. The figures of farm servants sowing and reaping corn, of
artisans erecting houses, and cooks preparing meals, were expected to render similar services to the departed
soul. Magical texts were inscribed with purpose to ensure this happy condition of affairs; others called down
curses on the heads of tomb robbers.
Kings and nobles had no pleasure in the prospect that they would have to perform humble tasks in the Nether
World. They desired to occupy there the exalted stations which they enjoyed upon earth. It was necessary,
therefore, to have numerous employees so that their mansions might be erected, their fields cultivated, and
their luxuries provided as of old.
The custom at first obtained of slaying a number of servants to accompany the great dignitary to Paradise.
These poor victims were supposed to be grateful, because they were to be rewarded with assured immortality.
But the shedding of blood was rendered unnecessary when the doctrine obtained that substitutes could be
provided by sculptors and painters.
Another mortuary custom was to provide little figures, called Ushebtiu, "the answerers", inscribed with
magical formulæ, which would obey the dead and perform whatever duties he desired of them in Paradise.
These were ultimately shaped in mummy form, and in the later Dynasties were made of glazed ware, because
wooden figures suffered from the ravages of the white ant.
Many toy−like figures of servants are found in early tombs. Here we discover, perchance, the model of a
nobleman's dwelling. An ox is being slain in the backyard. In the kitchen the staff is engaged cooking an
elaborate repast; a little fellow devotes himself entirely to a goose which he turns on a spit before the fire. We
have a glimpse of high life in another scene. The nobleman has feasted, and he sits at ease in a large
apartment listening to singers and harpers. A dancing girl comes out to whirl before him, while her
companions keep time to the music by clapping their hands. Meanwhile artisans are busy in their workshops.
We see a potter moulding a vessel of exquisite shape, while near at hand a carpenter saws wood with which
he intends to construct an elaborate article of furniture. Boats are rocking at a pier, for the soul may desire to
sail down the Nile of the Nether World. Here. in fact, is a boat pursuing its way; a dozen strenuous oarsmen
occupy the benches, while the steersman stands erect at the helm with the guiding rope in his hands; armed
men are on guard, and the nobleman sits with a friend below an awning on a small deck in the centre of the
boat, calmly engaged playing a game of draughts.
Mortuary chapels were endowed as early as the First Dynasty. Priests were regularly engaged in worshipping
dead kings and princes who had made provision in their wills for the necessary expenses. The son of one
monarch in the Fourth Dynasty devoted the revenues of a dozen towns to maintain the priesthood attached to
his tomb. This custom created grave financial problems.
In a few generations the whole land might be mortgaged to maintain mortuary chapels, with the result that a
revolution involving a change of dynasty became an economic necessity.
Hearken! ye kings, while horror stalks the land,
Lo! your poor people fall a ready prey
Made weak by your oppression, even in death
Burdened and bruised and terrorized; their lands
Tax ridden for these temples ye endowed,
That fawning priests might meek obeisance make
And render ceaseless homage to your shades.
The walls of the chapel were either sculptured in low relief or painted with scenes of daily life, and from
these we gather much of what we know regarding the manners and customs of the ancient people. But such
works of art were not intended merely to be decorative or to perpetuate the fame of the dead. It was desired
that those scenes should be duplicated in Paradise. The figures of farm servants sowing and reaping corn, of
artisans erecting houses, and cooks preparing meals, were expected to render similar services to the departed
soul. Magical texts were inscribed with purpose to ensure this happy condition of affairs; others called down
curses on the heads of tomb robbers.
Kings and nobles had no pleasure in the prospect that they would have to perform humble tasks in the Nether
World. They desired to occupy there the exalted stations which they enjoyed upon earth. It was necessary,
therefore, to have numerous employees so that their mansions might be erected, their fields cultivated, and
their luxuries provided as of old.
The custom at first obtained of slaying a number of servants to accompany the great dignitary to Paradise.
These poor victims were supposed to be grateful, because they were to be rewarded with assured immortality.
But the shedding of blood was rendered unnecessary when the doctrine obtained that substitutes could be
provided by sculptors and painters.
Another mortuary custom was to provide little figures, called Ushebtiu, "the answerers", inscribed with
magical formulæ, which would obey the dead and perform whatever duties he desired of them in Paradise.
These were ultimately shaped in mummy form, and in the later Dynasties were made of glazed ware, because
wooden figures suffered from the ravages of the white ant.
Many toy−like figures of servants are found in early tombs. Here we discover, perchance, the model of a
nobleman's dwelling. An ox is being slain in the backyard. In the kitchen the staff is engaged cooking an
elaborate repast; a little fellow devotes himself entirely to a goose which he turns on a spit before the fire. We
have a glimpse of high life in another scene. The nobleman has feasted, and he sits at ease in a large
apartment listening to singers and harpers. A dancing girl comes out to whirl before him, while her
companions keep time to the music by clapping their hands. Meanwhile artisans are busy in their workshops.
We see a potter moulding a vessel of exquisite shape, while near at hand a carpenter saws wood with which
he intends to construct an elaborate article of furniture. Boats are rocking at a pier, for the soul may desire to
sail down the Nile of the Nether World. Here. in fact, is a boat pursuing its way; a dozen strenuous oarsmen
occupy the benches, while the steersman stands erect at the helm with the guiding rope in his hands; armed
men are on guard, and the nobleman sits with a friend below an awning on a small deck in the centre of the
boat, calmly engaged playing a game of draughts.
King Zoser had two tombs erected for himself. One is a great brick mastaba at Abydos, which may have been
a "soul house" in the chapel of which his "double" was worshipped; the other, which is constructed of
limestone, is situated on the desert behind Memphis. The latter is of particular interest to students of Egyptian
history.It is a terraced structure nearly 200 feet in height, formed by a series of mastabas of decreasing size
superimposed one above another. This wonderful building has been called "the step pyramid of Sakkara"; it is
not only the first pyramid which was erected in Egypt, but the earliest great stone structure in the world.
So much attention is paid to the three sublime pyramids at Gizeh that Zoser's limestone tomb is apt to be
overlooked. Yet it is of marked importance in the history of the country. It was constructed nearly a hundred
years before Khufu (Cheops) ascended the throne, and the experience gained in undertaking a work of such
vast dimensions made possible the achievements of later times. The architect was the renowned Imhotep, one
of the world's great men. His fame was perpetuated in Egypt until the Saite or Restoration period, when he
was worshipped as the god called by the Greeks "Imuthes". He was an inventive and organizing genius, and a
statesman who exercised much influence at the Court of King Zoser. Like Solomon, he was reputed to be the
wisest man of his Age. He was the author of a medical treatise, and he left behind him a collection of
proverbs which endured as long as the old Egyptian language. As a patron of learning his memory was
revered by the scribes for over two thousand years, and it was their custom before beginning work to pour out
from their jars a libation to his spirit.
The step pyramid was Imhotep's conception. He prepared the plans and overlooked the work of construction.
No doubt, too, he was responsible for the organization of the army of labourers and artisans who were
employed for a prolonged period in erecting this enduring memorial of a great monarch.
Such a vast undertaking is a sure indication of theadvanced character of the civilization of the times. Much
wealth must have accumulated in the royal exchequer. The country was in a settled and prosperous
condition., owing to the excellent system of government and the activity of administrators. It was no small
task to bring together thousands of workmen, who had to be housed and fed and kept under control. Skilled
tradesmen were employed, who had been trained in quarrying and dressing stone. Evidently masonry had
flourished in Memphis for a considerable period. There were hundreds of overseers experienced in the
organization of labour, and large numbers of educated scribes conversant with the exact keeping of accounts.
Education was no longer confined to the ruling classes. We know that there were schools in Memphis. Boys
were instructed in "the three R's", and in a papyrus of maxims it was quaintly remarked that they could "hear
with their backs", an indication as to the manner in which corporal punishment was inflicted. The system of
writing was the cursive style called "hieratic", which originated in pre−Dynastic times as a rough imitation in
outline of hieroglyphics. A knowledge of elementary arithmetic was required in the ordinary transactions of
business. Some corrected exercises have survived. Advanced pupils were instructed in geometrywhich had
its origin in Egyptin mensuration, and in the simpler problems of algebra.
As the Egyptians were an intensely practical people, school studies were specialized. Boys were trained for
the particular profession in which they were to be employed. If they were to become business men they
attended commercial classes. The number of "trial pieces" which have been found show that young sculptors
attended technical schools, as did also artists andmetal workers. In the temple colleges the future officials and
lawyers and doctors were made conversant with the accumulated knowledge and wisdom of the age.
Education was evidently controlled by the priests.
Memphis was a hive of organized industry. The discipline of business pervaded all classes, and everywhere
law and order were promoted. Pharaoh was no idler. His day was fully occupied in the transaction of public
business, and to every prince was allotted a responsible post, and his duties had to be efficiently performed.
The nation was in its young manhood; the foundations had been securely established of a great civilization,
which was to endure for some thirty centuries.
It may be said that the royal house of the Old Kingdom was established upon a rock. When the Pharaoh's
builders discarded brick, and began to quarry and hew stones, Egyptian civilization made rapid progress. It
had had its beginnings in the struggle with Nature in the Nile valley. An increasing population was
maintained under peaceful conditions when the problem of water distribution was solved by the construction
of canals. These had to be controlled, and the responsibility of a regulated flow was imposed upon the
Pharaoh. Good government, therefore, became a necessity; a failure of water caused famine and insurrection.
To those who toiled and those who protected the toiler Nature gave a bountiful reward. More food was
produced than was required for home consumption. The surplus yield of corn was, as we have seen, the
means of promoting trade, which made Egypt a wealthy country. As capital accumulated, the progress of
knowledge was assured, and men entered upon those higher pursuits which promote moral and intellectual
advancement.
Egypt might have continued happily on the eventenor of its way as an agricultural and trading country, but its
civilization could never have attained so high a degree of perfection if its arts and industries had not been
fostered and developed. We may riot think highly of Egyptian religion, of which, after all, we have but
imperfect knowledge, but we must recognize that it was the inspiration of the architects and craftsmen whose
sublime achievements we regard with wonder and admiration after the lapse of thousands of years. It was
undoubtedly a civilizing agency; it promoted culture and refinement, and elevated mankind to love beauty for
its own sake. Egyptian art flourished because it was appreciated and was in demand.
The surplus wealth of Egypt was expended largely for religious purposes. Temple building kept those
wonderful old architects and sculptors constantly engaged. an ever−increasing class of skilled workers had
also to be trained, disciplined, and organized. Men of ability were brought to the front and were judged on
their own merits. There is no place for pretenders in the world of Art. When the Pharaohs, therefore,
undertook the erection of temples and tombs they not only ensured regularity of labour, but also stimulated
intellectual effort, with results that could not have been otherwise than beneficial to society at large.
We may well regard the conquest of stone as one of the greatest conquests which the Egyptians achieved. In
our Introduction we have suggested that the new industry may have been introduced by the cave−hewing
pre−Semitic inhabitants of southern Palestine. The remarkable skill manifested by the earliest stone workers
of Egypt with almost dramatic suddenness was evidently the result of long experience. Deft workmanship
was accomplished from the outset; stones were measured and dressed withwonderful accuracy and skill. The
changes which took place in the burial customs during the early Dynasties also suggest that influences from
without were being felt in the ancient kingdom.
Whatever the origin of the stone workers may have been, it is evident that they were closely associated with
Memphis at a very early period. As we have seen, the art of stone working and stone building on a sublime
scale was first displayed by the worshippers of Ptah, the artificer god. It is of special interest to find,
therefore, that Manetho has preserved those persistent Egyptian traditions which connect Memphis with the
new industry. He credited Zoser, the builder of the step pyramid at Sakkara, with the introduction of
stonework; he also recorded that the first temple in Egypt was erected at Memphis to Ptah by King Mena.
The city's name of "White Walls" suggests that the fortress was constructed of limestone.
We know now that stone was used at Abydos before Zoser's daynot, however, until after the conquest of the
northbut the traditional association of Memphis with the new industry is none the less significant. The
probability that a colony of Memphite artisans settled in the vicinity of the Assouan quarries, and introduced
stone working into Upper Egypt, is emphasized by the worship of Khnûmû, the god of the First Cataract, who
bears so striking a resembling to Ptah. He was similarly regarded as the modeller of the world. Like Ptah, he
was associated with the chaos egg, and he is depicted shaping the first man upon his potter's wheel.
Khnûmû was merged at an early date with the ram god Min, for he is invariably shown with ram's horns or a ram's head. He was a Great Father, and represented the male principle. His consort is Hekt, the
frog−headedgoddess, who is evidently of great antiquity. The Egyptians believed that frogs were generated
spontaneously from Nile−fertilized mud, and they associated Hekt with the origin of life. This quaint goddess
was one of the "mothers" who was supposed to preside at birth, and so persistent was the reverence shown
her by the great mass of the people that she was ultimately fused with Hathor. In Coptic times Hekt was a
symbol of the resurrection.
Another goddess associated with Khnûmû was named Sati. Her title "Lady of the Heavens" links her with
Nut and Hathor. She is usually depicted as a stately woman wearing a cow's horns and the crown of Upper
Egypt; she is "the queen of the gods".
An island goddess, called Anukt, belongs to the same group. She has negroid attributes and wears a crown of
feathers.
It is apparent that this arbitrary grouping of deities at the First Cataract was the direct result of the mingling
of peoples of different origin. Hekt represents a purely Egyptian cult, while Sati is evidently one of the forms
of the Great Mother deity of the earliest civilized people in the Nile valley; she resembles closely the historic
Isis. Anukt, on the other hand, was probably of Nubian origin, and may have been introduced by those dusky
settlers from the south whose aggressive tendencies caused so much concern at the royal Court from time to
time. The theory that Khnûmû was the god of the quarries, and builders especially, is supported not only by
his resemblance to Ptah, but also by the fact that the Pharaoh who erected the greatest pyramid at Gizeh was
called Khnûmû Khufu; this is the monarch whom the Greeks called Cheops.